1. Introduction
Moment-resisting and braced frames are typical lateral force-resisting systems in buildings [
1]. Moment-resisting mechanisms dissipate energy by undergoing large lateral displacements within the plastic region [
2]. The demand for large displacement in ordinary connections results in the fracture of beam–column connections. Further, large drifts damage non-structural elements. Hence, moment-resisting frames require special attention in their design to mitigate large lateral displacements; thus, there are practical and economic constraints associated with these systems. In contrast, concentrically braced frames (CBFs) address the drift issue and reduce the impact on non-structural elements [
3]. However, there have been concerns about the performance of CBFs in past earthquakes [
4], such as 1985 Mexico [
5], 1989 Loma Prieta [
6], 1994 Northridge [
7], and 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu [
8]. Unsymmetrical behavior in tension and compression is one of the main reasons for the poor performance of CBFs in past earthquakes. Under lateral loading, steel braces yield in tension and provide a plastic ductile deformation with a good source of energy dissipation. However, the buckling of braces in compression provides a poor source of energy dissipation. The revision of CBFs to eccentrically braced frames (EBFs) has undoubtedly enhanced the system’s behavior (at an increased cost), but it has not addressed the buckling problem.
Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBFs) endeavor to mitigate the challenge of unsymmetrical behavior in tension and compression [
9,
10,
11] through enhanced ductility and stiffness [
12,
13]. Thus, these systems are popular in seismic-prone regions for their excellent energy dissipation capacity [
4,
14]. Proposed mechanisms may involve enclosing a ductile metal like steel in either concrete or a mortar-filled steel tube to restrain buckling of the core plate. The steel plate carries the entire axial load and concentrates plastic deformation and energy dissipation. A typical steel core has a flat or cruciform shape and usually a smaller cross-sectional area. The plate length is divided into three zones: yielding, transition, and connecting (
Figure 1). The outer casing and restraining material provide lateral support and prevent global buckling. A small gap is made between the steel core and the restraining material to ensure no axial force is transmitted to the outer casing and to allow the steel core to elongate and contract easily. Because of the un-bonding/decoupling of the core, the confining material is not subjected to high axial stress, thus allowing the steel core plate to undergo elastoplastic buckling. BRBs achieve balanced hysteretic behavior by yielding in compression just as in tension yielding. The strength of the compressive yielding of a BRB is typically 10% higher than its tensile strength. This difference is due to both the accumulation of compressive stresses in the restraining material and to the Poisson effect, which causes the steel core area yielding under the compression to be larger than the area under the tension [
15].
Buckling-restrained braces achieve substantial ductility and balanced hysteretic behavior by undergoing plastic yielding in tension and compression, which accommodates compression yielding before the onset of buckling [
16]. Thus, they exhibit high-energy dissipation [
17]. Previous research has also shown that a steel frame with BRBs had a damping ratio greater than 6%; however, conventional steel braces exhibit damping ratios below 0.4% [
18]. Thus, BRBs have the added advantage of increasing the damping levels of a steel structure due to the higher viscous damping of materials. This effect adds to the damping offered by the hysteretic behavior of the system.
According to the BRBF qualification testing protocol [
19], the recommended elastic ductility demand value for concrete-infilled BRB is 7.5. With careful design, the mean ductility of BRBs can range between 20 to 25, which is greater than the code-recommended value of 7.5 [
20]. Such a range in ductility demand can be achieved by adjusting various restraining mechanisms [
21]. Furthermore, design optimization depends on the overstrength, ductility, and response modification factors of BRBFs, as well as building structure characteristics like height [
22].
In the hope of reducing health hazards caused by scrap tires, researchers have turned their interest to utilizing such tires in the production of soil embankments [
23,
24], asphalt concrete [
25], and cementitious concrete [
26,
27,
28]. These materials, known as tire-derived aggregates, provide energy dissipation and damping in various applications [
26]. Concrete produced from such recycled tires is known as tire-derived aggregate concrete (TDA) or rubberized concrete. Replacing some aggregates with recycled tire wastes (
Figure 2) can alter the mechanical properties of materials, including reducing strength and rigidity and increasing toughness and ductility [
29]. These changes are proportional to the volumetric contents of TDA. The minimum rate of substituting coarse aggregates with TDA to achieve significant toughness is 60% for normal-weight aggregates [
26] and 80% for lightweight aggregates [
29]. The higher percentage for lightweight aggregates can be attributed to the higher damping and energy dissipation of these aggregates, which in turn are due to their porosity and micromechanical characteristics [
29]. Fracture mechanic analysis of TDA concrete confirmed experimental observations of its enhanced toughness due to the bridging action of TDAs in cementitious aggregates [
30]. Furthermore, experimental dynamic studies revealed that tire-derived aggregates increased the damping ratio of concrete specimens subject to impact loading [
31]. These enhancements contribute to the sustainability and resilience of concrete elements subjected to the dynamic effects of natural disasters like earthquakes or artificial incidents like vehicular collisions [
32].
Fiber-reinforced polymer was introduced to BRBs to avoid corrosion [
33]. This application was later investigated by Dusicka and Tinker (2013); by using an aluminum core and glass fiber-reinforced polymer case, they reduced global buckling by 27% compared with a traditional BRB [
34]. Deng and Pan [
35] proposed a new glass fiber-reinforced polymer steel BRB. In their method, four GFRP tubes strengthen the steel core, and local buckling occurs at the end of the steel core and GFRP case. The conventional BRB tube is replaced by GFRP, which prevents local buckling of the steel core. However, this method weakens global buckling due to low longitudinal stiffness [
13].
The effects of concrete properties on BRBFs are often neglected due to the low tensile strength and damping of concrete, as well as the lack of mechanisms to transfer compressive loads to encasing concrete materials [
36]. However, applying concrete material with higher damping properties may change perceptions of the contribution of concrete to the performance of the BRBF system. Prior research has shown that TDA can be used in structures where energy absorption is a primary concern. Hence, in this study, a novel material of tire-derived aggregate concrete (TDA) was used as a restraining material to study the dynamic properties of BRBs [
29]. The ductility, energy dissipation capacity, damping ratios, and failure pattern of BRB with TDA concrete and conventional concrete were investigated and compared.