Photonics

45 pages, 17409 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Phase-Inserted Fiber Gratings and Their Applications to Optical Filtering, Optical Signal Processing, and Optical Sensing: Review

by Chengliang Zhu, Lei Wang and Hongpu Li

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040271 - 18 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3165

Abstract

Phase-inserted fiber gratings (PI-FGs) refer to those gratings where there exist a number of the phase-shifts (spatial spacing) among different sections (or local periods) of the gratings themselves. All the PI-FGs developed to date can mainly be divided into three categories: phase-shifted gratings, [...] Read more.

Phase-inserted fiber gratings (PI-FGs) refer to those gratings where there exist a number of the phase-shifts (spatial spacing) among different sections (or local periods) of the gratings themselves. All the PI-FGs developed to date can mainly be divided into three categories: phase-shifted gratings, phase-only sampled gratings, and phase-modulated gratings, of which the utilized gratings could be either the Bragg ones (FBGs) or the long-period ones (LPGs). As results of the proposed the PI-FGs where the numbers, quantities, and positions of the inserted phases along the fiber direction are optimally selected, PI-FGs have already been designed and used as various complex filters such as the ultra-narrow filters, the triangular (edge) filters, the high channel-count filters, and the flat-top band-pass/band-stop filters, which, however, are extremely difficult or even impossible to be realized by using the ordinary fiber gratings. In this paper, we have briefly but fully reviewed the past and recent advances on PI-FGs, in which the principles and design methods, the corresponding fabrication techniques, and applications of the different PI-FGs to the fields of optical filtering, optical signal processing, and optical sensing, etc., have been highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Fiber Bragg Grating Research II)

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11 pages, 5673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Single Event Burnout Mechanism in GaN Power Devices Using Femtosecond Pulsed Laser

by Yixin Cui, Yingqi Ma, Shipeng Shangguan and Jianwei Han

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040270 - 18 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2312

Abstract

Single event burnout (SEB) is a great threat to gallium nitride (GaN) power devices for aerospace applications. This paper is dedicated to the investigation of the SEB mechanism in a GaN power device using a femtosecond pulsed laser. In the test, the SEB [...] Read more.

Single event burnout (SEB) is a great threat to gallium nitride (GaN) power devices for aerospace applications. This paper is dedicated to the investigation of the SEB mechanism in a GaN power device using a femtosecond pulsed laser. In the test, the SEB of a commercial p-GaN power device was triggered by a focused laser beam with a wavelength of 620 nm, and the irradiation-sensitive area of the devices was identified. We observed that the damage modes were consistent with the results of heavy ion experiments. The vertical breakdown of the drain is proposed as the dominant mechanism of SEB. We also provide a schematic representation of the leakage path formation using the electrical data obtained following laser-induced SEB. This study provides an important reference for consideration of device reliability and application prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section New Applications Enabled by Photonics Technologies and Systems)

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11 pages, 950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Attosecond Transient Absorption Below the Excited States

by Jinxing Xue, Xinliang Wang, Meng Wang, Cangtao Zhou and Shuangchen Ruan

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040269 - 18 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1917

Abstract

In this study, the attosecond transient absorption (ATA) spectrum below the excited states of the helium atom was investigated by numerically solving the fully three-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equation. Under single-active electron approximation, the helium atom was illuminated by a combined field comprising of [...] Read more.

In this study, the attosecond transient absorption (ATA) spectrum below the excited states of the helium atom was investigated by numerically solving the fully three-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equation. Under single-active electron approximation, the helium atom was illuminated by a combined field comprising of extreme ultraviolet (XUV) and delayed infrared (IR) fields. The response function demonstrates that the absorption near the central frequency (

ω_{X}

) of the XUV field is periodically modulated during the overlapping between the XUV and IR pulses. Using the time-dependent perturbation, the absorption near

ω_{X}

is attributed to the wavepacket excited by the XUV pulse. The wave function oscillating at the frequency of the XUV pulse was obtained. Furthermore, the chirp-dependent absorption spectrum near

ω_{X}

potentially provides an all-optical method for characterizing the attosecond pulse duration. Finally, these results can extend to other systems, such as solids or liquids, indicating a potential for application in photonic devices, and they may be meaningful for quantum manipulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Nonlinear Optics)

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11 pages, 1778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Frequency Comb-Based Direct Two-Photon Cooling for Cold Atom Clock

by Lin Dan, Hao Xu, Ping Guo and Jianye Zhao

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040268 - 18 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1714

Abstract

The performance of the cold atom clock based on coherent population trapping (CPT) improved when the temperature decreased. In order to obtain a lower temperature in the cold atom clock, we proposed a cooling scheme in this paper that employs direct two-photon transition [...] Read more.

The performance of the cold atom clock based on coherent population trapping (CPT) improved when the temperature decreased. In order to obtain a lower temperature in the cold atom clock, we proposed a cooling scheme in this paper that employs direct two-photon transition using optical frequency combs (OFCs). Two trains of time-delayed pulses from opposite directions were utilized to interact with atoms. It was found that the temperature of the cold atoms reached the minimum if the pulse area was

π

and the time delay between the absorption pulse and the stimulated emission pulse was in the range from

0.7 τ

to

τ

. In this paper, it was confirmed that the proposed cooling process allowed for faster and more efficient momentum exchange between light and atoms, and the proposed cooling process could be applied to the atoms or molecules that could not be cooled to desired temperature through the single-photon cooling process. The ⁸⁷Rb cooling, together with the CPT interrogating scheme using OFCs reduced the ratio value of linewidth/contrast, and the frequency stability of the cold atom clock hence improved by more than six times as per our calculation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Quantum Photonics and Technologies)

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12 pages, 2940 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommunication

Flexible Silicon Dimer Nanocavity with Electric and Magnetic Enhancement

by Chengda Pan, Yajie Bian, Yuchan Zhang, Shiyu Zhang, Xiaolei Zhang, Botao Wu, Qingyuan Jin and E Wu

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040267 - 18 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1962

Abstract

High-index dielectrics have recently been regarded as promising building blocks in nanophotonics owing to optical electric and magnetic Mie resonances. In particular, silicon is gaining great interest as the backbone of modern technology. Here, silicon dimer nanocavities with different sizes of silicon nanospheres [...] Read more.

High-index dielectrics have recently been regarded as promising building blocks in nanophotonics owing to optical electric and magnetic Mie resonances. In particular, silicon is gaining great interest as the backbone of modern technology. Here, silicon dimer nanocavities with different sizes of silicon nanospheres were constructed using a probe nanomanipulation method and interacted with a few-layered R6G membrane to investigate the enhancement of electric and magnetic mode coupling. The evidence of the enhancement of fluorescence and slightly prolonged lifetime of R6G indicated the existence of nanocavities. In addition, the simulated electric and magnetic field distributions and decomposed mode of nanocavity were used to analyze the contribution of electric and magnetic modes to the R6G enhanced fluorescence. Such silicon dimer is a flexible nanocavity with electric and magnetic mode enhancement and has promising applications in sensing and all-dielectric metamaterials or nanophotonic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Optical and Optoelectronic Materials and Applications)

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15 pages, 9080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of PCF Supporting 86 OAM Modes with High Mode Quality and Low Nonlinear Coefficient

by Yang Yu, Yudong Lian, Qi Hu, Luyang Xie, Jie Ding, Yulei Wang and Zhiwei Lu

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040266 - 18 Apr 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1969

Abstract

A unique photonic crystal fiber with square and circular air holes (SC-PCF) is designed in this research. Three layers of circular air holes and two levels of square air holes make up the fiber cladding. The finite element approach is used to simulate [...] Read more.

A unique photonic crystal fiber with square and circular air holes (SC-PCF) is designed in this research. Three layers of circular air holes and two levels of square air holes make up the fiber cladding. The finite element approach is used to simulate the fiber construction, and numerical calculations are used to examine the transmission properties in the S+C+L band. The results reveal that the SC-PCF can sustain 86 Orbital Angular Momentum (OAM) modes in the wavelength range of 1400 nm to 1700 nm (300 nm), with an effective refractive index difference (ERID) of 5.88 × 10⁻³ between them, thus avoiding mode coupling. The mode purity of all modes is greater than 96% at 1550 nm, and the lowest dispersion and dispersion change are 4.939 ps/nm/km and 0.956 ps/nm/km, respectively. The confinement loss (CL) of all modes is lower than 10⁻⁹ dB/m, and the nonlinear coefficient (NC) is lower than 1.5 W⁻¹·km⁻¹ in the whole band. The proposed SC-PCF has important value in long-distance and large-capacity communication systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Crystal Fibers: Design, Fabrication and Applications)

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11 pages, 2162 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Scoping Review of the Efficacy of Diode Lasers Used for Minimally Invasive Exposure of Impacted Teeth or Teeth with Delayed Eruption

by Ali Borzabadi-Farahani

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040265 - 17 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4825

Abstract

Background: The use of diode lasers for oral surgery soft tissue procedures is associated with less pain and bleeding, quick recovery, and better surgical site visibility. Objectives: This scoping review identifies and analyses the evidence evaluating the efficacy of the diode laser surgical [...] Read more.

Background: The use of diode lasers for oral surgery soft tissue procedures is associated with less pain and bleeding, quick recovery, and better surgical site visibility. Objectives: This scoping review identifies and analyses the evidence evaluating the efficacy of the diode laser surgical exposure of impacted teeth or teeth with delayed eruption (both with no overlaying bone) vs. conventional scalpel surgical exposure. Materials and Methods: The PubMed/Medline, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar databases were searched up to January 2022 for randomized clinical trials and case-control studies comparing diode laser impacted-tooth surgical exposure vs. conventional surgical methods. Furthermore, the surgical exposure of an impacted mandibular canine or premolars with a 940 nm (InGaAsP) diode laser was presented. Results: The literature search revealed no high-quality evidence. However, four prospective studies were identified. Diode laser application was associated with less pain or analgesic need, minimal/no bleeding, and no need for suturing after surgery. The laser wavelengths used were 808, 810, 935, and 980 nm. A comparison of the study outcomes was not possible; all the studies had methodological issues and their funding sources were not mentioned. Conclusions: Adequately powered clinical trials are needed for comparing outcomes from diode laser surgical exposure vs. conventional methods, identifying the ideal laser characteristics, and assessing the long-term periodontal health of laser-exposed teeth and any potential risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Laser Diode and LED)

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13 pages, 370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Stochastic Feedback Cooling of a Mechanical Oscillator Using a Degenerate Parametric Amplifier

by Xiaoqian Ye, Sumei Huang, Li Deng and Aixi Chen

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040264 - 16 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1530

Abstract

Cooling of a macroscopic mechanical resonator to extremely low temperatures is a necessary condition to observe a variety of macroscopic quantum phenomena. Here, we study the stochastic feedback cooling of a mechanical resonator in an optomechanical system with a degenerate optical parametric amplifier [...] Read more.

Cooling of a macroscopic mechanical resonator to extremely low temperatures is a necessary condition to observe a variety of macroscopic quantum phenomena. Here, we study the stochastic feedback cooling of a mechanical resonator in an optomechanical system with a degenerate optical parametric amplifier (OPA). In the bad-cavity limit, we find that the OPA can enhance the cooling of the movable mirror in the stochastic feedback cooling scheme. The movable mirror can be cooled from 132 mK to 0.033 mK, which is lower than that without the OPA by a factor of about 5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Quantum Photonics and Technologies)

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15 pages, 853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Complexity Chromatic Dispersion Equalization FIR Digital Filter for Coherent Receiver

by Zicheng Wu, Sida Li, Zhiping Huang, Fangqi Shen and Yongjie Zhao

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040263 - 15 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1429

Abstract

This paper proposes a novel and efficient low-complexity chromatic dispersion equalizer (CDE) based on finite impulse response (FIR) filter architecture for polarization-multiplexed coherent optical communication systems. The FIR filter coefficients are optimized by weights to reduce the energy leakage caused by the truncation [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a novel and efficient low-complexity chromatic dispersion equalizer (CDE) based on finite impulse response (FIR) filter architecture for polarization-multiplexed coherent optical communication systems. The FIR filter coefficients are optimized by weights to reduce the energy leakage caused by the truncation effect, and then quantization is used uniformly to reduce the number of real number additions and real number multiplications by utilizing the diversity of the quantized coefficients. Using Optisystem 15 to build a coherent optical communication system for simulation and experimental demonstration, the results show that after the filter coefficients are optimized by weights. Compared with the time-domain chromatic dispersion equalizer (TD-CDE), the proposed design has a lower bit error rate (BER) and better equalization effect. When the transmission distance is 4000 km and the system quantization stages M = 16, the multiplication operation and addition operations reduce computing resources by 99% and 43%, and the BER only increases by 5%. Compared with frequency-domain chromatic dispersion equalizer (FD-CDE), widely used in long-distance communication, the multiplication operation reduces computing resources by 30%. The proposed method provides a new idea for high-performance CDE in long-distance coherent optical communication systems. Full article

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18 pages, 798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence on Optical Wireless Communication in NEOM Smart City

by Ayshah S. Alatawi, Albashir A. Youssef, Mohamed Abaza, Mohammad Ammad Uddin and Ali Mansour

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040262 - 15 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3685

Abstract

The foundation of any smart city requires an innovative and robust communication infrastructure. Many research communities envision free-space optical communication (FSO) as a promising backbone technology for the services and applications provided by such cities. However, the channel through which the FSO signal [...] Read more.

The foundation of any smart city requires an innovative and robust communication infrastructure. Many research communities envision free-space optical communication (FSO) as a promising backbone technology for the services and applications provided by such cities. However, the channel through which the FSO signal travels is the atmosphere. Therefore, the FSO performance is limited by the local weather conditions. The variation in meteorological variables leads to variations of the refractive index along the transmission path. These index inhomogeneities (i.e., atmospheric turbulence) can significantly degrade the performance of FSO systems. Thus, a practical implementation of the FSO link must carefully consider the atmospheric turbulence effect. This paper aims to investigate the feasibility of FSO communication for NEOM, a promising smart city in Saudi Arabia. We study the effect of weather conditions on FSO links using the micrometeorology model, taking into account actual weather data. The FSO performance in winter and summer was compared in terms of the bit error rate, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), link availability, and transmission distance. The study shows that the atmospheric turbulence strength is moderate and strong in winter and summer, respectively. The temperature has the biggest impact on the FSO system when compared to the other meteorological elements included in this study. Furthermore, at transmission distances less than 300 m, atmospheric turbulence does not significantly affect the FSO for the operating wavelength of 1550 nm. Furthermore, it has been shown that at transmission distances greater than 300 m, the SNR in summer is more than 18% higher than in winter. The findings of this research enable understanding of the effect of turbulence caused by NEOM weather on the FSO link, thus assisting engineers in establishing a reliable FSO backbone link by adjusting the relevant parameters. Full article

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19 pages, 3677 KiB

Open AccessReview

Blood Cell Analysis: From Traditional Methods to Super-Resolution Microscopy

by Zexu Tian, Yongchang Wei, Yalan Yu, Fuling Zhou and Zhen-Li Huang

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040261 - 14 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2914

Abstract

Blood cell analysis is essential for the diagnosis and identification of hematological malignancies. The use of digital microscopy systems has been extended in clinical laboratories. Super-resolution microscopy (SRM) has attracted wide attention in the medical field due to its nanoscale spatial resolution and [...] Read more.

Blood cell analysis is essential for the diagnosis and identification of hematological malignancies. The use of digital microscopy systems has been extended in clinical laboratories. Super-resolution microscopy (SRM) has attracted wide attention in the medical field due to its nanoscale spatial resolution and high sensitivity. It is considered to be a potential method of blood cell analysis that may have more advantages than traditional approaches such as conventional optical microscopy and hematology analyzers in certain examination projects. In this review, we firstly summarize several common blood cell analysis technologies in the clinic, and analyze the advantages and disadvantages of these technologies. Then, we focus on the basic principles and characteristics of three representative SRM techniques, as well as the latest advances in these techniques for blood cell analysis. Finally, we discuss the developmental trend and possible research directions of SRM, and provide some discussions on further development of technologies for blood cell analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biophotonics Imaging and Therapy: Advances, Applications, and Perspectives toward Translation and Clinics)

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15 pages, 2541 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Measurement-Based Efficient Computational Approach to Modeling Optical Power Transmission in Step-Index Polymer Optical Fiber

by Jorge Guerrero, M. Angeles Losada, Alicia Lopez, Javier Mateo, Dwight Richards, N. Antoniades, Xin Jiang and Nicholas Madamopoulos

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040260 - 14 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1521

Abstract

Polymer optical fibers (POFs) are playing an important role in industrial applications nowadays due to their ease of handling and resilience to bending and environmental effects. A POF can tolerate a bending radius of less than 20 mm, it can work in environments [...] Read more.

Polymer optical fibers (POFs) are playing an important role in industrial applications nowadays due to their ease of handling and resilience to bending and environmental effects. A POF can tolerate a bending radius of less than 20 mm, it can work in environments with temperatures ranging from −55 °C to +105 °C, and its lifetime is around 20 years. In this paper, we propose a novel, rigorous, and efficient computational model to estimate the most important parameters that determine the characteristics of light propagation through a step-index polymer optical fiber (SI-POF). The model uses attenuation, diffusion, and mode group delay as functions of the propagation angle to characterize the optical power transmission in the SI-POF. Taking into consideration the mode group delay allows us to generalize the computational model to be applicable to POFs with different index profiles. In particular, we use experimental measurements of spatial distributions and frequency responses to derive accurate parameters for our SI-POF simulation model. The experimental data were measured at different fiber lengths according to the cut-back method. This method consists of taking several measurements such as frequency responses, angular intensity distributions, and optical power measurements over a long length of fiber (>100 m), then cutting back the fiber while maintaining the same launching conditions and repeating the measurements on the shorter lengths of fiber. The model derivation uses an objective function to minimize the differences between the experimental measurements and the simulated results. The use of the matrix exponential method (MEM) to implement the SI-POF model results in a computationally efficient model that is suitable for POF-based system-level studies. The efficiency gain is due to the independence of the calculation time with respect to the fiber length, in contrast to the classic analytical solutions of the time-dependent power flow equation. The robustness of the proposed model is validated by calculating the goodness-of-fit of the model predictions relative to experimental data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber)

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7 pages, 10927 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Proposal to Perform High Contrast Imaging of Human Palatine Tonsil with Cross Polarized Optical Coherence Tomography

by Gargi Sharma, Asha Parmar, Franziska Hoffmann, Katharina Geißler, Ferdinand von Eggeling, Orlando Guntinas-Lichius and Kanwarpal Singh

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040259 - 13 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1719

Abstract

The palatine tonsils provide the first line of immune defense against foreign pathogens inhaled or ingested. However, a disruption in the epithelial layer within the tonsil crypts can lead to recurrent acute tonsillitis (RAT). Current imaging techniques suffer from poor resolution and contrast [...] Read more.

The palatine tonsils provide the first line of immune defense against foreign pathogens inhaled or ingested. However, a disruption in the epithelial layer within the tonsil crypts can lead to recurrent acute tonsillitis (RAT). Current imaging techniques suffer from poor resolution and contrast and do not allow a classification of the severity of RAT. We have developed a cross-polarized optical coherence tomography system. The system can detect a change in the polarization of the light after the light-tissue interaction. We demonstrate improved resolution and contrast in tonsil imaging with the developed method. Intensity, as well as retardance images of the excised tonsil tissue, were acquired. Features such as crypt epithelium, lymphoid follicles, and dense connective tissue were observed with improved contrast. Cross polarized optical coherence tomography can be a valuable tool in the clinic to evaluate palatine tonsils as it would allow visualizing common tonsil features without the need for any external contrast agent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Diagnostics)

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10 pages, 3460 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Multi-Wavelength Terahertz Parametric Generator Using a Seed Laser Based on Four-Wave Mixing

by Sota Mine, Kodo Kawase and Kosuke Murate

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040258 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1939

Abstract

In this study, we developed a multi-wavelength terahertz-wave parametric generator that operates with only one injection seeding laser. Tunable lasers used as an injection seeder must be single-frequency oscillators, and conventional multi-wavelength terahertz-wave parametric generator requires basically the same number of lasers as [...] Read more.

In this study, we developed a multi-wavelength terahertz-wave parametric generator that operates with only one injection seeding laser. Tunable lasers used as an injection seeder must be single-frequency oscillators, and conventional multi-wavelength terahertz-wave parametric generator requires basically the same number of lasers as the number of wavelengths. In order to solve this problem, we developed a new external cavity semiconductor laser that incorporates a DMD in its wavelength-selective mechanism. In this process, stable multi-wavelength oscillation from a single laser was made possible by efficiently causing four-wave mixing. This seed laser can be applied to practical real-time terahertz spectroscopy by arbitrarily switching the desired wavelength to be generated and the interval between multiple wavelengths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terahertz (THz) Science in Advanced Materials, Devices and Systems)

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12 pages, 928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiphoton Resonance in Attosecond Transient Absorption

by Jinxing Xue, Meng Wang, Cangtao Zhou and Shuangchen Ruan

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040257 - 12 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1747

Abstract

We present the theory and simulation of attosecond transient absorption in helium atoms under the single-active-electron approximation. This study investigates the attosecond dynamics of intrinsic atomic states that interact with a field comprising vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) fields. The absorption [...] Read more.

We present the theory and simulation of attosecond transient absorption in helium atoms under the single-active-electron approximation. This study investigates the attosecond dynamics of intrinsic atomic states that interact with a field comprising vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) fields. The absorption spectrum of the helium atom is obtained from the response function, which is constructed by numerically solving the three-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equation. We observe a fine structure near the intrinsic atomic level, which is modulated with a 0.2 fs period. Based on high-order time-dependent perturbation theory, the frequency-dependent phase of the dipole response induced by the VUV and XUV fields is analytically obtained, and the fine structure is well explained by the phase difference. In addition, the absorption fringes are dependent on the chirp of the VUV field. This study investigates the features of the attosecond transient absorption in the VUV region, which may have valuable applications in the study of ultrafast phenomena in atoms, molecules, and solids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrafast Spectroscopy: Fundamentals and Applications)

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12 pages, 5592 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Photoionization of Electrons in Degenerate Energy Level of Hydrogen Atom Induced by Strong Laser Pulses

by Peipei Xin, Tianhui Qiu, Hongyang Ma, Hua Yuan and Hongping Liu

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040256 - 11 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1847

Abstract

Photoionization dynamics of bounded electrons in the ground state, the first and second excited states of a hydrogen atom, triggered by ultrashort near-infrared laser pulses, have been investigated in a transition regime (

γ \sim 1

) that offers both multiphoton and tunneling [...] Read more.

Photoionization dynamics of bounded electrons in the ground state, the first and second excited states of a hydrogen atom, triggered by ultrashort near-infrared laser pulses, have been investigated in a transition regime (

γ \sim 1

) that offers both multiphoton and tunneling features. Significant differences in spectral characteristics are found between the three low-energy states. The H(

2 s

) ionization probability is larger than the H(

2 p

) value with a special oscillating structure, but both are much greater than the ground state H(

1 s

) in a wide range of laser intensities. By comparing the momentum spectrum and angular distributions of low-energy photoelectrons released from these degenerate states, we find the H(

2 p

) state shows a stronger long-range Coulomb attraction force than the H(

2 s

) state on account of the difference in the initial electron wave packet. Furthermore, analysis of the photoelectron momentum distributions sheds light on both the first and second excited states with a symmetrical intercycle interference structure in a multicycle field but an intracycle interference of an asymmetric left-handed or right-handed rotating spectrum in a few-cycle field. By analyzing photoelectron spectroscopy, we identify the parity characteristics of photoelectrons in different energy intervals and their corresponding above-threshold single-photon ionization (ATSI) or above-threshold double-photon ionization (ATDI) processes. We finally present the momentum distributions of the electrons ionized by laser pulses with different profiles and find the carrier-envelope phase (CEP) is a strong factor in deciding the rotating structure of the emission spectrum, which provides a new method to distinguish the CEP of few-cycle pulses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Nonlinear Phenomena with Strong Laser Fields)

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11 pages, 2644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Type of Etched Fiber Grating Hydrophone

by Wen-Fung Liu, Jia-Guan Li, Hung-Ying Chang, Ming-Yue Fu and Chi-Fang Chen

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040255 - 11 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2230

Abstract

We propose a new type of fiber hydrophone composed of an etched fiber Bragg grating and a special packaging structure for detecting acoustic waves in the low-frequency band under water. The operating mechanism is based on the mechanical vibration of the fiber Bragg [...] Read more.

We propose a new type of fiber hydrophone composed of an etched fiber Bragg grating and a special packaging structure for detecting acoustic waves in the low-frequency band under water. The operating mechanism is based on the mechanical vibration of the fiber Bragg grating from the induced vibrating stress of acoustic pressure. The induced pressure of acoustic waves pushes the silicone rubber thin film, causing its vibration and then stretching the fiber Bragg grating, thus resulting in the grating wavelength shift which is overlapped with a tunable laser. The variation in the overlapped light intensity is transferred to an electrical signal by using a photodetector. From the experimental results, we can determine that the smaller the fiber diameter, the higher the sensitivity and frequency response. In order to confirm that this FBG hydrophone has the ability to work in high-frequency acoustic waves, this fiber grating hydrophone and a standard piezoelectric hydrophone are experimentally compared to in the same test conditions in the frequency range from 4 to 10 kHz. According to the experimental results, the fiber grating hydrophone has better responsivity than that of the conventional hydrophone. Due to the unique sensing structure design, this wide-band fiber hydrophone can be useful in long-term continuous monitoring of acoustic waves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Fiber Bragg Grating Research II)

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9 pages, 2220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison between Cylindrical, Trigonal, and General Symmetry Models for the Analysis of Polarization-Dependent Second Harmonic Generation Measurements Acquired from Collagen-Rich Equine Pericardium Samples

by Meropi Mari, Vassilis Tsafas, Despina Staraki, Costas Fotakis and George Filippidis

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040254 - 11 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1558

Abstract

Polarization-dependent second harmonic generation (PSHG) microscopy is used as an innovative, high-resolution, non-destructive, and label-free diagnostic imaging tool to elucidate biological issues with high significance. In the present study, information on the structure and directionality of collagen fibers in equine pericardium tissue was [...] Read more.

Polarization-dependent second harmonic generation (PSHG) microscopy is used as an innovative, high-resolution, non-destructive, and label-free diagnostic imaging tool to elucidate biological issues with high significance. In the present study, information on the structure and directionality of collagen fibers in equine pericardium tissue was collected using PSHG imaging measurements. In an effort to acquire precise results, three different mathematical models (cylindrical, trigonal, and general) were applied to the analysis of the recorded PSHG datasets. A factor called the “ratio parameter” was calculated to provide quantitative information. The implementation of the trigonal symmetry model to the recorded data led to the extraction of improved results compared with the application of the widely used cylindrical symmetry model. The best outcome was achieved through the application of the general model that does not include any kind of symmetry for the data processing. Our findings suggest that the trigonal symmetry model is preferable for the analysis of the PSHG datasets acquired from the collagenous tissues compared with the cylindrical model approach although an increased computational time is required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomedical Photonics)

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12 pages, 10168 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Single-Pixel Imaging Scheme with Obstacle Detection

by Peiming Li, Haixiao Zhao, Wenjie Jiang, Zexin Zhang and Baoqing Sun

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040253 - 11 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1793

Abstract

Single-pixel imaging (SPI) utilizes a second-order correlation of structured illumination light field and a single-pixel detector to form images. As the single-pixel detector provides no spatial resolution, a structured illumination light field generated by devices such as a spatial light modulator substitutes the [...] Read more.

Single-pixel imaging (SPI) utilizes a second-order correlation of structured illumination light field and a single-pixel detector to form images. As the single-pixel detector provides no spatial resolution, a structured illumination light field generated by devices such as a spatial light modulator substitutes the role of array camera to retrieve pixel-wise spatial information. Due to its unique imaging modality, SPI has certain advantages. Meanwhile, its counterintuitive configuration and reciprocity relation to traditional array cameras have been studied to understand its fundamental principle. According to previous studies, the non-spatial detection property makes it possible for SPI to resist scattering in the detection part. In this work, we study the influence of an obstacle aperture in the detection part of SPI. We notice that such an obstacle aperture can restrict the field-of-view (FOV) of SPI, which can be diminished by a scattering process. We investigate these properties with experiment results and analysis under geometry optics. We believe that our study will be helpful in understanding the counterintuitive configuration of SPI and its reciprocity to traditional imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Pixels and Imaging)

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9 pages, 1524 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Eight-Channel LAN WDM (De)Multiplexer Based on Cascaded Mach–Zehnder Interferometer on SOI for 400GbE

by Zhizun Zhao, Zhen Li, Jiaqi Niu, Gaolu Zhang, Hongliang Chen, Xin Fu and Lin Yang

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040252 - 11 Apr 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3296

Abstract

In this paper, we design and experimentally demonstrate an eight-channel cascaded Mach–Zehnder interferometer (MZI) based Local Area Network (LAN) Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) (de)multiplexerwith channel spacing of 800 GHz on a silicon-on-insulator. By cascading a three-stage MZI, eight target wavelengths are (de)multiplexed. The [...] Read more.

In this paper, we design and experimentally demonstrate an eight-channel cascaded Mach–Zehnder interferometer (MZI) based Local Area Network (LAN) Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) (de)multiplexerwith channel spacing of 800 GHz on a silicon-on-insulator. By cascading a three-stage MZI, eight target wavelengths are (de)multiplexed. The length difference of the third-stage MZI delay arms is adjusted so that the output channels skip the guard band. In order to keep the central wavelength of each channel from shifting, we utilize a wide waveguide for the phase delay arm in MZI to achieve large fabrication tolerance, and the multi-mode interference (MMI) couplers as power splitters with weak dispersions. The measurement results of the fabricated device show the precise wavelength alignment over the whole working wavelength range. Full article

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12 pages, 25681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Retinal Images Affected by Cataracts

by Enrique Gonzalez-Amador, Justo Arines, Pablo Charlón, Nery Garcia-Porta, Maximino J. Abraldes and Eva Acosta

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040251 - 10 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2387

Abstract

Eye fundus images are used in clinical diagnosis for the detection and assessment of retinal disorders. When retinal images are degraded by scattering due to opacities of the eye tissues, the precise detection of abnormalities is complicated depending on the grading of the [...] Read more.

Eye fundus images are used in clinical diagnosis for the detection and assessment of retinal disorders. When retinal images are degraded by scattering due to opacities of the eye tissues, the precise detection of abnormalities is complicated depending on the grading of the opacity. This paper presents a concept proof study on the use of the contrast limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE) technique for better visualization of eye fundus images for different levels of blurring due to different stages of cataracts. Processing is performed in three different color spaces: RGB, CIELAB and HSV, with the aim of finding which one better enhances the missed diagnostic features due to blur. The experimental results show that some fundus features not observable by naked eye can be detected in some of the space color processed with the proposed method. In this work, we also develop and provide an online image process, which allows clinicians to tune the default parameters of the algorithm for a better visualization of the characteristics of fundus images. It also allows the choice of a region of interest (ROI) within the images that provide better visualization of some features than those enhanced by the processing of the full picture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ocular Imaging for Eye Care)

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14 pages, 1778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity Improvement and Determination of Rydberg Atom-Based Microwave Sensor

by Minghao Cai, Zishan Xu, Shuhang You and Hongping Liu

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040250 - 10 Apr 2022

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5197

Abstract

We present a theoretical and experimental investigation of the improvement and determination of the sensitivity of Rydberg atom-based microwave RF sensor. An optical Bloch equation has been set up based on the configuration that two-color cascading lasers exciting atom to highly Rydberg state [...] Read more.

We present a theoretical and experimental investigation of the improvement and determination of the sensitivity of Rydberg atom-based microwave RF sensor. An optical Bloch equation has been set up based on the configuration that two-color cascading lasers exciting atom to highly Rydberg state and a microwave RF coupling this Rydberg state to its adjacent neighbor. The numerical simulation shows that the sensitivity of the atomic RF sensor is correlated with the amplitude strengths of the applied two lasers and the RF itself. It also depends on the frequency detuning of the coupling laser, which induces an asymmetrically optical splitting. The coupling laser frequency fixing at the shoulder of the stronger one is more favorable for a higher sensitivity. Accordingly, we perform an experimental demonstration for the optimization of all these parameters and the sensitivity is improved to 12.50(04)

{nVcm}^{- 1}

·Hz

^{- 1 / 2}

. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Quantum Manipulation of Rydberg Atoms)

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10 pages, 4557 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Collapse Dynamics of Vortex Beams in a Kerr Medium with Refractive Index Modulation and PT-Symmetric Lattices

by Gang Yao, Yuhua Li and Rui-Pin Chen

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040249 - 10 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

Using the two-dimensional nonlinear Schrödinger equation, the collapse dynamics of vortex beams in a Kerr medium with refractive index modulation and parity–time (PT) symmetric lattices are explored. The critical power for the collapse of vortex beams in a Kerr medium with real optical [...] Read more.

Using the two-dimensional nonlinear Schrödinger equation, the collapse dynamics of vortex beams in a Kerr medium with refractive index modulation and parity–time (PT) symmetric lattices are explored. The critical power for the collapse of vortex beams in a Kerr medium with real optical lattices (i.e., refractive index modulation lattices) was obtained and discussed. Numerical calculations showed that the number of self-focusing points, the locations of the collapse, and the propagation distances for collapse are sensitively dependent on the modulation factors, topological charge numbers, and initial powers. When the vortex optical field propagates in a Kerr medium with real optical lattices, the optical field will collapse into a symmetrical shape. However, the shape of the vortex beam will be chaotically distorted and collapse in asymmetric patterns during propagation in a Kerr medium with PT-symmetric lattices because of the presence of the complex refraction index. Introducing PT-symmetric lattices into nonlinear Kerr materials may offer a new approach to controlling the collapse of vortex beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vortex Beams: Fundamentals and Applications)

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14 pages, 9399 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On Optically Modulated Reflective Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Pattern-Dependent Overshoot Mitigation Using a Birefringent Fiber Loop

by Nikolaos Avgenos, Kyriakos E. Zoiros and Zoe V. Rizou

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040248 - 09 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1266

Abstract

Reflective semiconductor optical amplifiers (RSOAs) are key elements for modern optical communications. Despite their widespread deployment, their performance when intended for ultrafast data amplification is limited by their inherently slow gain dynamics. In this paper, we propose to employ a birefringent fiber loop [...] Read more.

Reflective semiconductor optical amplifiers (RSOAs) are key elements for modern optical communications. Despite their widespread deployment, their performance when intended for ultrafast data amplification is limited by their inherently slow gain dynamics. In this paper, we propose to employ a birefringent fiber loop (BFL) to compensate for the RSOA pattern-dependent behavior and extend its operation well beyond that allowed by its nominal optical modulation bandwidth. We apply a reduced model to describe the RSOA response and quantify the RSOA output distortion by means of a non-return-to-zero data pulse overshoot. We validate the outcomes of this model in the time domain both for the RSOA alone and with the assistance of the BFL by an extensive comparison to available measurements. The excellent matching between simulation and experimental results allows us to further investigate the impact of critical operating parameters and derive specifications for them so that the performance of the scheme against the overshoot is made acceptable. The theoretical predictions confirm the ability of the BFL to enhance the RSOA direct amplification capability and hence establish it as a frequency discriminator for complementing RSOAs’ versatile and scalable operation. Full article

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10 pages, 2435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Study of Quasi One-Well Terahertz Quantum Cascade Laser

by Boyu Wen and Dayan Ban

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040247 - 09 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1986

Abstract

Developing a high-temperature terahertz (THz) quantum cascade laser (QCL) has been one of the major challenges in the THz QCL field over recent decades. The maximum lasing temperature of THz QCLs has gradually been increased, arguably by shortening the length of repeating periods [...] Read more.

Developing a high-temperature terahertz (THz) quantum cascade laser (QCL) has been one of the major challenges in the THz QCL field over recent decades. The maximum lasing temperature of THz QCLs has gradually been increased, arguably by shortening the length of repeating periods of the quantum structure in the device’s active region from 7 wells/14 layers to 2 wells/4 layers per period. The current highest operating temperature of 250 K was achieved in a two-well direct-phonon design. In this paper, we propose a potential and promising novel quantum design scheme named the quasi one-well (Q1W) design, in which each quantum cascade period consists of only three semiconductor layers. This design is the narrowest of all existing THz QCL structures to date. We explore a series of the Q1W designs using the non-equilibrium green function (NEGF) and rate-equation (RE) models. Both models show that the Q1W designs exhibit the potential to achieve sufficient optical gain with low-temperature sensitivity. Our simulation results suggest that this novel Q1W scheme may potentially lead to relatively less temperature-sensitive THz QCLs. The thickness of the Q1W scheme is less than 20 nm per period, which is the narrowest of the reported THz QCL schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontier of Quantum Devices for Quantum Technologies)

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10 pages, 1321 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Physical Significance of the Determinant of a Mueller Matrix

by José J. Gil, Razvigor Ossikovski and Ignacio San José

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040246 - 08 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1554

Abstract

The determinant of a Mueller matrix M plays an important role in both polarization algebra and the interpretation of polarimetric measurements. While certain physical quantities encoded in M admit a direct interpretation, the understanding of the physical and geometric significance of the determinant [...] Read more.

The determinant of a Mueller matrix M plays an important role in both polarization algebra and the interpretation of polarimetric measurements. While certain physical quantities encoded in M admit a direct interpretation, the understanding of the physical and geometric significance of the determinant of M (

\det M

) requires a specific analysis, performed in this work by using the normal form of M, as well as the indices of polarimetric purity (IPP) of the canonical depolarizer associated with M. We derive an expression for

\det M

in terms of the diattenuation, polarizance and a parameter proportional to the volume of the intrinsic ellipsoid of M. We likewise establish a relation existing between the determinant of M and the rank of the covariance matrix H associated with M, and determine the lower and upper bounds of

\det M

for the two types of Mueller matrices by taking advantage of their geometric representation in the IPP space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polarized Light and Optical Systems)

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12 pages, 504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Optimization of Holmium Doped Fiber Amplifiers for Optical Communication Applications in 2–2.15 μm Wavelength Range

by Abdullah G. Alharbi, Firdous Kanwal, Salman Ghafoor, Nazish Habib, Benish Kanwal, Ahmad Atieh, Tasleem Kousar and Jawad Mirza

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040245 - 07 Apr 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2069

Abstract

In this paper, we address the performance optimization of Holmium doped fiber amplifier (HDFA) for optical communications in 2–2.15 μm wavelength range based on a single in-band forward pump source. The performance of the HDFA is analyzed with the help of theoretical simulations [...] Read more.

In this paper, we address the performance optimization of Holmium doped fiber amplifier (HDFA) for optical communications in 2–2.15 μm wavelength range based on a single in-band forward pump source. The performance of the HDFA is analyzed with the help of theoretical simulations by considering an optimized length of Holmium doped fiber (HDF), doping concentration of Ho³⁺, and pump power. The impact of signal wavelength and power on gain, amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise, and noise figure (NF) of the amplifier is investigated. Furthermore, we investigate the variations in the gain of the amplifier, its output power, and NF by varying the power and wavelength of the pump source. After optimizing the parameters of the amplifier, the peak gain observed is around 56.5 dB, the 3 dB saturated output power obtained is 33.3 dBm, and the output power is 3 W at signal wavelength of 2.0321 μm for HDF having an optimized length of 12 m and pump power of 3.5 W. Minimum NF of around 8.2 dB is observed at 2.0321 μm for signal power of −5 dBm. The impact of ion-ion interaction on the performance of HDFA is also investigated. A reduction of 24.2 dB and 0.051 W is observed in peak gain and output power of HDFA, respectively by considering the ion-ion interaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Integrated Photonics for Communication and Sensing Applications)

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14 pages, 50636 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Light Field Display Realization with a Nematic Liquid Crystal Microlens Array and a Polymer Dispersed Liquid Crystal Film

by Hui Li, Yancheng He, Yi Yu, Yuntao Wu, Shuiping Zhang and Yanduo Zhang

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040244 - 07 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2149

Abstract

This study demonstrates a light field display system using a nematic liquid crystal (LC) microlens array (MLA) and a polymer dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) film. LC-MLA without polarization effects presented high-resolution intermediate 3D images by adopting a depolarization algorithm. The adopted PDLC film [...] Read more.

This study demonstrates a light field display system using a nematic liquid crystal (LC) microlens array (MLA) and a polymer dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) film. LC-MLA without polarization effects presented high-resolution intermediate 3D images by adopting a depolarization algorithm. The adopted PDLC film modulated the reconstructed 3D images to deliver full-parallax images efficiently with a wide FOV. The experimental result shows that the peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR) value of photograph accurate display results improves compared to the pure LC-MLA method. The proposed method is an essential step toward high-quality light field display. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical MEMS for 3D Imaging Applications)

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12 pages, 2927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On-Demand Phase Control of a 7-Fiber Amplifiers Array with Neural Network and Quasi-Reinforcement Learning

by Maksym Shpakovych, Geoffrey Maulion, Alexandre Boju, Paul Armand, Alain Barthélémy, Agnès Desfarges-Berthelemot and Vincent Kermene

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040243 - 06 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1919

Abstract

We report a coherent beam combining technique using a specific quasi-reinforcement learning scheme. A neural network learned by this method enables the tailoring and locking of a tiled beam array on any phase map. We present the experimental implementation of on-demand phase control [...] Read more.

We report a coherent beam combining technique using a specific quasi-reinforcement learning scheme. A neural network learned by this method enables the tailoring and locking of a tiled beam array on any phase map. We present the experimental implementation of on-demand phase control by a neural network in a seven-fiber laser array. This servo loop needs only six phase corrections to converge to the desired phase set at any profile, with a bandwidth higher than 1 kHz. Moreover, we demonstrate the dynamical feature of adaptive phase control, performing sequences of controlled phase sets. It is the first time, to the best of our knowledge, that an actual array of seven-fiber amplifiers has been successfully phase-locked and controlled by machine learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Applications of Methods and Elements of Adaptive Optics)

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14 pages, 1334 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamical Collective Excitations and Entanglement of Two Strongly Correlated Rydberg Superatoms

by Dong Yan, Wenjie Bai, Jiannan Bai, Li Chen, Haiyan Han and Jinhui Wu

Photonics 2022, 9(4), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9040242 - 06 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1969

Abstract

Based on the dipole blockade effect and with the aid of the superatom (SA) model, we propose a scheme to investigate the correlated evolution of two Rydberg sub-superatoms (SSAs), formed by two spatially separated atomic Rydberg sub-ensembles but in the same blockade region. [...] Read more.

Based on the dipole blockade effect and with the aid of the superatom (SA) model, we propose a scheme to investigate the correlated evolution of two Rydberg sub-superatoms (SSAs), formed by two spatially separated atomic Rydberg sub-ensembles but in the same blockade region. Starting from the pure separable states, we investigate the in-phase or anti-phase correlated dynamics and explore how two Rydberg SSAs entangle with each other mediated by a single Rydberg excitation. Starting from the entangled states, we discuss the robustness of the system against decoherence induced by the dephasing rate. Our results show that both the correlated evolution of two Rydberg SSAs and their collective-state entanglement are usually sensitive to the number of each Rydberg SSA. This allows us to coherently manipulate the Rydberg ensemble over long distances from the single-quantum level to the mesoscopic level by changing the number of atoms. Furthermore, the method for dividing an SA into two SSAs and obtaining their spin operators without any approximation can be readily generalized to the case of many SSAs. It may have potential promising applications in quantum information processing and provide an attractive platform to study the quantum-classical correspondence, many-body physics and so on. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Quantum Manipulation of Rydberg Atoms)

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Photonics, Volume 9, Issue 4 (April 2022) – 67 articles

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