Photonics

26 pages, 7316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Discussion on Piston-Type Phase Ambiguity in a Coherent Beam Combining System

by Haolong Jia, Jing Zuo, Qiliang Bao, Chao Geng, Yihan Luo, Ao Tang, Jing Jiang, Feng Li, Jianpeng Ren and Xinyang Li

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010049 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2378

Abstract

Coherent beam combining (CBC) with closely arranged centrosymmetric arrays is a promising way to obtain a high-brightness laser. An essential task in CBC is to actively control the piston phases of the input beams, maintaining the correct phasing to maximize the combination efficiency. [...] Read more.

Coherent beam combining (CBC) with closely arranged centrosymmetric arrays is a promising way to obtain a high-brightness laser. An essential task in CBC is to actively control the piston phases of the input beams, maintaining the correct phasing to maximize the combination efficiency. By applying the neural network, the nonlinear mapping relationship between the far-field image and the piston phase could be established, so that the piston phase can be corrected quickly with one step, which caused widespread concern. However, there exists a piston-type phase ambiguity problem in the CBC system with centrosymmetric arrays, which means that multiple different piston phases may generate the same far-field image. This will prevent the far-field image from correctly reflecting the phase information, which will result in a performance degradation of the image-based intelligent algorithms. In this paper, we make a theoretical analysis of phase ambiguity. A method to solve phase ambiguity is proposed, which requires no additional optical devices. We designed simulations to verify our conclusions and methods. We believe that our work solves the phase ambiguity problem in theory and is conducive to improving the performance of image-based algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Lasers, Light Sources and Sensors)

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9 pages, 12743 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Dispersion Measurement with Optical Computing Optical Coherence Tomography

by Wenxin Zhang, Zhengyu Chen, Xiao Zhang, Chengming Wang, Bin He, Ning Liu, Yangkang Wu, Yuxiu Tao, Ning Zhang and Ping Xue

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010048 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2513

Abstract

We propose a novel technique to measure fiber dispersion without any derivative operation and index measurement. Based on the relationship between the dispersion and the signal in optical computing optical coherence tomography, dispersion can be deduced with high accuracy from optical computing OCT [...] Read more.

We propose a novel technique to measure fiber dispersion without any derivative operation and index measurement. Based on the relationship between the dispersion and the signal in optical computing optical coherence tomography, dispersion can be deduced with high accuracy from optical computing OCT signal position and resolution. The group velocity dispersion and third order dispersion of single mode fiber and dispersion compensating fiber with lengths of 10 m–10 km are measured to be in good consistence with the nominal value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Optical Coherence Tomography)

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14 pages, 2574 KiB

Open AccessTutorial

Nonlinear Dynamics of a Single-Mode Semiconductor Laser with Long Delayed Optical Feedback: A Modern Experimental Characterization Approach

by Xavier Porte, Daniel Brunner, Ingo Fischer and Miguel C. Soriano

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010047 - 16 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

Semiconductor lasers can exhibit complex dynamical behavior in the presence of external perturbations. Delayed optical feedback, re-injecting part of the emitted light back into the laser cavity, in particular, can destabilize the laser’s emission. We focus on the emission properties of a semiconductor [...] Read more.

Semiconductor lasers can exhibit complex dynamical behavior in the presence of external perturbations. Delayed optical feedback, re-injecting part of the emitted light back into the laser cavity, in particular, can destabilize the laser’s emission. We focus on the emission properties of a semiconductor laser subject to such optical feedback, where the delay of the light re-injection is large compared to the relaxation oscillations period. We present an overview of the main dynamical features that emerge in semiconductor lasers subject to delayed optical feedback, emphasizing how to experimentally characterize these features using intensity and high-resolution optical spectra measurements. The characterization of the system requires the experimentalist to be able to simultaneously measure multiple time scales that can be up to six orders of magnitude apart, from the picosecond to the microsecond range. We highlight some experimental observations that are particularly interesting from the fundamental point of view and, moreover, provide opportunities for future photonic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nonlinear Dynamics of Semiconductor Lasers and Their Applications)

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9 pages, 3422 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Application of a Novel Nd:YAG/PPMgLN Laser Module Speckle-Suppressed by Multi-Mode Fibers in an Exhibition Environment

by Xiao Liu, Xin-Ting Zeng, Wen-Jian Shi, Shang-Feng Bao, Tao Yu and Hong-Yi Lin

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010046 - 16 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1783

Abstract

Laser exhibition technology has been widely used in the virtual environment of exhibitions and shows, as well as in the physical conference and exhibition centers. However, the speckle issue due to the high coherence of laser sources has caused harmful impacts on image [...] Read more.

Laser exhibition technology has been widely used in the virtual environment of exhibitions and shows, as well as in the physical conference and exhibition centers. However, the speckle issue due to the high coherence of laser sources has caused harmful impacts on image quality, which is one of the obstacles to exhibition effects. In this paper, we design a compact Nd:YAG/PPMgLN laser module at 561.5 nm and use two different types of big-core multi-mode fibers to lower the spatial coherence. According to our experiment, the speckle contrasts relating to these two types reduce to 7.9% and 4.1%, respectively. The results of this paper contribute to improving the application effects of key optical components in the exhibitions. Only in this way can we provide technical supports and service guarantee for the development of the exhibition activities, and an immersive interactive experience for the audiences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Lasers, Light Sources and Sensors)

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11 pages, 2162 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

High Sensitivity Fiber Refractive Index Sensors Based on Asymmetric Supermodes Interference in Tapered Four Core Fiber

by Lina Suo, Haimiao Zhou, Ya-Pei Peng, Fan Yang, Hsiang-Chen Chui and Nan-Kuang Chen

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010045 - 14 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

We demonstrate high sensitivity fiber refractive index (RI) sensor based on asymmetric supermode interferences in tapered four core fiber (TFCF). To make TFCF-based RI sensors, the whitelight was launched into any one of the cores to define the excitation orientation and is called [...] Read more.

We demonstrate high sensitivity fiber refractive index (RI) sensor based on asymmetric supermode interferences in tapered four core fiber (TFCF). To make TFCF-based RI sensors, the whitelight was launched into any one of the cores to define the excitation orientation and is called a vertex-core excitation scheme. When the four-core fiber (FCF) was gradually tapered, the four cores gathered closer and closer. Originally, the power coupling occurred between its two neighboring cores first and these three cores are grouped to produce supermodes. Subsequently, the fourth diagonal core enters the evanescent field overlapping region to excite asymmetric supermodes interferences. The output spectral responses of the two cores next to the excitation core are mutually in phase whereas the spectral responses of the diagonal core are in phase and out of phase to that of the excitation core at the shorter and longer wavelengths, respectively. Due to the lowest limitation of the available refractive index of liquids, the best sensitivity can be achieved when the tapered diameter is 10 μm and the best RI sensitivity S is 3249 nm/RIU over the indices ranging from 1.41–1.42. This is several times higher than that at other RI ranges due to the asymmetric supermodes. Full article

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11 pages, 11707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual-Branch Feature Fusion Network for Salient Object Detection

by Zhehan Song, Zhihai Xu, Jing Wang, Huajun Feng and Qi Li

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010044 - 14 Jan 2022

Viewed by 2026

Abstract

Proper features matter for salient object detection. Existing methods mainly focus on designing a sophisticated structure to incorporate multi-level features and filter out cluttered features. We present the dual-branch feature fusion network (DBFFNet), a simple effective framework mainly composed of three modules: global [...] Read more.

Proper features matter for salient object detection. Existing methods mainly focus on designing a sophisticated structure to incorporate multi-level features and filter out cluttered features. We present the dual-branch feature fusion network (DBFFNet), a simple effective framework mainly composed of three modules: global information perception module, local information concatenation module and refinement fusion module. The local information of a salient object is extracted from the local information concatenation module. The global information perception module exploits the U-Net structure to transmit the global information layer by layer. By employing the refinement fusion module, our approach is able to refine features from two branches and detect salient objects with final details without any post-processing. Experiments on standard benchmarks demonstrate that our method outperforms almost all of the state-of-the-art methods in terms of accuracy, and achieves the best performance in terms of speed under fair settings. Moreover, we design a wide-field optical system and combine with DBFFNet to achieve salient object detection with large field of view. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interplay between Photonics and Machine Learning)

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26 pages, 6100 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Semiconductor Lasers under External Optical Feedback from Both Sides of the Laser Cavity

by Mónica Far Brusatori and Nicolas Volet

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010043 - 14 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2360

Abstract

To increase the spectral efficiency of coherent communication systems, lasers with ever-narrower linewidths are required as they enable higher-order modulation formats with lower bit-error rates. In particular, semiconductor lasers are a key component due to their compactness, low power consumption, and potential for [...] Read more.

To increase the spectral efficiency of coherent communication systems, lasers with ever-narrower linewidths are required as they enable higher-order modulation formats with lower bit-error rates. In particular, semiconductor lasers are a key component due to their compactness, low power consumption, and potential for mass production. In field-testing scenarios their output is coupled to a fiber, making them susceptible to external optical feedback (EOF). This has a detrimental effect on its stability, thus it is traditionally countered by employing, for example, optical isolators and angled output waveguides. In this work, EOF is explored in a novel way with the aim to reduce and stabilize the laser linewidth. EOF has been traditionally studied in the case where it is applied to only one side of the laser cavity. In contrast, this work gives a generalization to the case of feedback on both sides. It is implemented using photonic components available via generic foundry platforms, thus creating a path towards devices with high technology-readiness level. Numerical results shows an improvement in performance of the double-feedback case with respect to the single-feedback case. In particularly, by appropriately selecting the phase of the feedback from both sides, a broad stability regime is discovered. This work paves the way towards low-cost, integrated and stable narrow-linewidth integrated lasers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nonlinear Dynamics of Semiconductor Lasers and Their Applications)

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13 pages, 5289 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

High-Flexibility Control of Structured Light with Combined Adaptive Optical Systems

by Ruediger Grunwald, Mathias Jurke, Martin Bock, Max Liebmann, Binal Poyyathuruthy Bruno, Hitesh Gowda and Ulrike Wallrabe

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010042 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2505

Abstract

Combining the specific advantages of high-resolution liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulators (LCoS-SLMs) and reflective or refractive micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) presents new prospects for the generation of structured light fields. In particular, adaptive self-apodization schemes can significantly reduce diffraction by low-loss spatial filtering. The concept [...] Read more.

Combining the specific advantages of high-resolution liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulators (LCoS-SLMs) and reflective or refractive micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) presents new prospects for the generation of structured light fields. In particular, adaptive self-apodization schemes can significantly reduce diffraction by low-loss spatial filtering. The concept enables one to realize low-dispersion shaping of nondiffracting femtosecond wavepackets and to temporally switch, modulate or deflect spatially structured beams. Adaptive diffraction management by structured illumination is demonstrated for piezo-based and thermally actuated axicons, spiral phase plates (SPPs) and Fresnel bi-mirrors. Improved non-collinear autocorrelation with angular-tunable Fresnel-bi-mirrors via self-apodized illumination and phase contrast of an SLM is proposed. An extension of the recently introduced nondiffractive Talbot effect to a tunable configuration by combining an SLM and a fluid lens is reported. Experimental results for hexagonal as well as orthogonal array beams are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section New Applications Enabled by Photonics Technologies and Systems)

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9 pages, 12201 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Electro-Optic Modulation of Higher-Order Poincaré Beam Based on Nonlinear Optical Crystal

by Lu Han, Zhan Li, Chao Chen, Xin Sun, Junyong Zhang and Dean Liu

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010041 - 12 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2028

Abstract

Vector beams (VBs) have spatially inhomogeneous polarization states distribution and have been widely used in many fields. In this paper, we proposed a method to modulate polarization states of higher-order Poincaré (HOP) beams and designed a system based on Mach-Zehnder interferometers, in which [...] Read more.

Vector beams (VBs) have spatially inhomogeneous polarization states distribution and have been widely used in many fields. In this paper, we proposed a method to modulate polarization states of higher-order Poincaré (HOP) beams and designed a system based on Mach-Zehnder interferometers, in which polarization state (include azimuth and ellipticity) of generated HOP beams were modulated by linear electro-optic (EO) effect of nonlinear optical crystals. Using this method, the polarization state of generated HOP beams could be controlled by voltage signal applied on EO crystals, which makes the process of the polarization state change with no optical element moving and mechanical vibrations. Besides, due to the flexibility of the voltage signal, the polarization state could be switched directly and immediately. Full article

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15 pages, 1523 KiB

Open AccessReview

Modulators in Silicon Photonics—Heterogenous Integration & and Beyond

by Jack Mulcahy, Frank H. Peters and Xing Dai

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010040 - 12 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8222

Abstract

The article below presents a review of current research on silicon photonics. Herein, an overview of current silicon modulator types and modern integration approaches is presented including direct bonding methods and micro-transfer printing. An analysis of current state of the art silicon modulators [...] Read more.

The article below presents a review of current research on silicon photonics. Herein, an overview of current silicon modulator types and modern integration approaches is presented including direct bonding methods and micro-transfer printing. An analysis of current state of the art silicon modulators is also given. Finally, new prospects for III–V-silicon integration are explored and the prospects of an integrated modulator compatible with current CMOS processing is investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Technologies for Data Center Networks)

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9 pages, 2937 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Theoretical Comparison of Optothermal Absorption in Transmissive Metalenses Composed of Nanobricks and Nanoholes

by Feng Tang, Qingzhi Li, Haichao Yu, Zao Yi and Xin Ye

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010039 - 11 Jan 2022

Viewed by 1857

Abstract

Background: Optical components with high damage thresholds are very desirable in intense-light systems. Metalenses, being composed of phase-control nanostructures with peculiar properties, are one of the important component candidates in future optical systems. However, the optothermal mechanism in metalenses is still not [...] Read more.

Background: Optical components with high damage thresholds are very desirable in intense-light systems. Metalenses, being composed of phase-control nanostructures with peculiar properties, are one of the important component candidates in future optical systems. However, the optothermal mechanism in metalenses is still not investigated adequately. Methods: In this study, the optothermal absorption in transmissive metalenses made of silicon nanobricks and nanoholes is investigated comparatively to address this issue. Results: The geometrical dependencies of nanostructures’ transmittance, phase difference, and field distribution are calculated numerically via simulations. To demonstrate the optothermal mechanism in metalenses, the mean absorption efficiencies of the selected unit-cells, which would constitute metalenses, are analyzed. The results show that the electric field in the silicon zone would lead to an obvious thermal effect, and the enhancement of the localized electric field also results in the strong absorption of optical energy. Then, two typical metalenses are designed based on these nanobricks and nanoholes. The optothermal simulations show that the nanobrick-based metalens can handle a power density of 0.15 W/µm², and the density of the nanohole-based design is 0.12 W/µm². Conclusions: The study analyzes and compares the optothermal absorption in nanobricks and nanoholes, which shows that the electric-field distribution in absorbent materials and the localized-field enhancement are the two key effects that lead to optothermal absorption. This study provides an approach to improve the anti-damage potentials of transmissive metalenses for intense-light systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optoelectronics and Optical Materials)

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14 pages, 5664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Ultrasensitive Hexagonal-Cored Photonic Crystal Fiber for Hazardous Chemical Sensing

by Abdul Mu’iz Maidi, Norazanita Shamsuddin, Wei-Ru Wong, Shubi Kaijage and Feroza Begum

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010038 - 10 Jan 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2778

Abstract

A highly sensitive non-complex cored photonic crystal fiber sensor for hazardous chemical sensing with water, ethanol, and benzene analytes has been proposed and is numerically analyzed using a full-vector finite element method. The proposed fiber consists of a hexagonal core hole and two [...] Read more.

A highly sensitive non-complex cored photonic crystal fiber sensor for hazardous chemical sensing with water, ethanol, and benzene analytes has been proposed and is numerically analyzed using a full-vector finite element method. The proposed fiber consists of a hexagonal core hole and two cladding air hole rings, operating in the lower operating wavelength of 0.8 to 2.6 µm. It has been shown that the structure has high relative sensitivity of 94.47% for water, 96.32% for ethanol and 99.63% for benzene, and low confinement losses of 7.31 × 10⁻⁹ dB/m for water, 3.70 × 10⁻¹⁰ dB/m ethanol and 1.76 × 10⁻¹³ dB/m benzene. It also displays a high power fraction and almost flattened chromatic dispersion. The results demonstrate the applicability of the proposed fiber design for chemical sensing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Application of Modern Evanescent Wave Photonic Sensors)

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10 pages, 915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endoscopic Imaging Using a Multimode Optical Fibre Calibrated with Multiple Internal References

by Petr Jákl, Martin Šiler, Jan Ježek, Ángel Cifuentes, Johanna Trägårdh, Pavel Zemánek and Tomáš Čižmár

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010037 - 10 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2708

Abstract

The interferometric acquisition of the transmission matrix (TM) of a multimode optical fibre (MMF), which is at the heart of multimode fibre-based endoscopic imaging methods, requires using a reference beam. Attempts to use an internal reference, that is to provide the reference in [...] Read more.

The interferometric acquisition of the transmission matrix (TM) of a multimode optical fibre (MMF), which is at the heart of multimode fibre-based endoscopic imaging methods, requires using a reference beam. Attempts to use an internal reference, that is to provide the reference in a common pathway geometry through the MMF itself, lead to a speckled reference intensity and consequential occurrence of “blind spots”—locations where insufficient optical power in the reference wave inflicts strong measurement errors. Here we show that combining a relatively small number of TMs, which are measured using different internal references, facilitates a complete elimination of blind spots, and thereby a significant enhancement of the imaging quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Multimode Optical Fibers)

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12 pages, 2000 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultra-Short Dual-Core Photonic Crystal Fiber Polarization Beam Splitter with Round Lattice and As₂S₃-Filled Center Air Hole

by Junbo Lou, Yonghui Yang, Xinhe Zhang, Qiang Qu and Shuguang Li

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010036 - 08 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1581

Abstract

A circular ultra-short

A s_{2} S_{3}

filled double-core photonic crystal fiber polarization beam splitter is proposed. The finite element method is used to study the performance of the designed photonic crystal fiber polarization beam splitter. By filling high refractive index [...] Read more.

A circular ultra-short

A s_{2} S_{3}

filled double-core photonic crystal fiber polarization beam splitter is proposed. The finite element method is used to study the performance of the designed photonic crystal fiber polarization beam splitter. By filling high refractive index

A s_{2} S_{3}

into the central air hole, the coupling performance of the double-core PCF is improved. By optimizing geometric parameters, the splitting length of the circular beam splitter can be as short as 72.43

μ

m, and the extinction ratio can reach −151.42 dB. The high extinction ratio makes the circular polarization beam splitter have a good beam splitting function. The designed circular double-core photonic crystal fiber has the same cladding pore diameter, which is easier to prepare than other photonic crystal fibers with complex pore structure. Due to the advantages of high extinction ratio, extremely short beam splitting function and simple structure, the designed polarization beam splitter will be widely used in all-optical networks and optical device preparation. Full article

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18 pages, 16762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tensor Dictionary Learning with an Enhanced Sparsity Constraint for Sparse-View Spectral CT Reconstruction

by Xuru Li, Xueqin Sun, Yanbo Zhang, Jinxiao Pan and Ping Chen

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010035 - 08 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1459

Abstract

Spectral computed tomography (CT) can divide collected photons into multi-energy channels and gain multi-channel projections synchronously by using photon-counting detectors. However, reconstructed images usually contain severe noise due to the limited number of photons in the corresponding energy channel. Tensor dictionary learning (TDL)-based [...] Read more.

Spectral computed tomography (CT) can divide collected photons into multi-energy channels and gain multi-channel projections synchronously by using photon-counting detectors. However, reconstructed images usually contain severe noise due to the limited number of photons in the corresponding energy channel. Tensor dictionary learning (TDL)-based methods have achieved better performance, but usually lose image edge information and details, especially from an under-sampling dataset. To address this problem, this paper proposes a method termed TDL with an enhanced sparsity constraint for spectral CT reconstruction. The proposed algorithm inherits the superiority of TDL by exploring the correlation of spectral CT images. Moreover, the method designs a regularization using the L₀-norm of the image gradient to constrain images and the difference between images and a prior image in each energy channel simultaneously, further improving the ability to preserve edge information and subtle image details. The split-Bregman algorithm has been applied to address the proposed objective minimization model. Several numerical simulations and realistic preclinical mice are studied to assess the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. The results demonstrate that the proposed method improves the quality of spectral CT images in terms of noise elimination, edge preservation, and image detail recovery compared to the several existing better methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue X-ray Luminescence and Fluorescence)

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13 pages, 26294 KiB

Open AccessConcept Paper

Real & Simulated QPSK Up-Converted Signals by a Sampling Method Using a Cascaded MZMs Link

by Hassan Termos and Ali Nansour

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010034 - 07 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1817

Abstract

This study focuses on a novel concept of transmitting of a quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation by an electro-optical frequency up-conversion using a cascaded Mach–Zehnder modulators (MZMs) link. Furthermore, we conduct and compare the results obtained by simulations using the Virtual Photonics [...] Read more.

This study focuses on a novel concept of transmitting of a quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation by an electro-optical frequency up-conversion using a cascaded Mach–Zehnder modulators (MZMs) link. Furthermore, we conduct and compare the results obtained by simulations using the Virtual Photonics Inc. (VPI) (Berlin, Germany) simulator and real-world experiments. The design and operating regime peculiarities of the MZM used as a sampling up-converter mixer in a radio over fiber (RoF) system are also analyzed. Besides, the simulation and experimental results of static and dynamic characteristics of the MZM have approximately the same behavior. The conversion gain of the cascaded MZMs link is simulated over many mixing frequencies and it can decrease from 17.5 dB at 8.3 GHz to −4.5 dB at 39.5 GHz. However, in real world settings, it may decrease from 15.5 dB at 8.3 GHz to −6 dB at 39.5 GHz. The maximum frequency range is attained at 78.5 GHz for up-conversion through simulations. Error vector magnitude (EVM) values have been done to evaluate the performance of our system. An EVM of 16% at a mixing frequency of 39.5 GHz with a bit rate of 12.5 Gbit/s was observed with the considering sampling technique, while it reached 19% in real-world settings with a sampling frequency of 39.5 GHz and a bit rate of 12.5 Gbit/s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optoelectronics and Optical Materials)

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11 pages, 844 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Patent Portfolio Analysis of the Synergy between Machine Learning and Photonics

by Shu-Hao Chang

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010033 - 07 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2296

Abstract

Machine learning in photonics has potential in many industries. However, research on patent portfolios is still lacking. The purpose of this study was to assess the status of machine learning in photonics technology and patent portfolios and investigate major assignees to generate a [...] Read more.

Machine learning in photonics has potential in many industries. However, research on patent portfolios is still lacking. The purpose of this study was to assess the status of machine learning in photonics technology and patent portfolios and investigate major assignees to generate a better understanding of the developmental trends of machine learning in photonics. This can provide governments and industry with a resource for planning strategic development. I used data-mining methods (correspondence analysis and K-means clustering) to explore competing technological and strategic-group relationships within the field of machine learning in photonics. The data were granted patents in the USPTO database from 2019 to 2020. The results reveal that patents were primarily in image data processing, electronic digital data processing, wireless communication networks, and healthcare informatics and diagnosis. I assessed the relative technological advantages of various assignees and propose policy recommendations for technology development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interplay between Photonics and Machine Learning)

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17 pages, 6120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Mixed FSO/RF Integrated Satellite-High Altitude Platform Relaying Networks for Multiple Terrestrial Users with Presence of Eavesdropper: A Secrecy Performance

by Kehinde O. Odeyemi and Pius A. Owolawi

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010032 - 04 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2210

Abstract

In this paper, the secrecy performance of a mixed free space optical (FSO)/radio frequency (RF) integrated satellite-high altitude platform (HAP) relaying networks for terrestrial multiusers with the existence of an eavesdropper is investigated. In this network, FSO is adopted to establish the link [...] Read more.

In this paper, the secrecy performance of a mixed free space optical (FSO)/radio frequency (RF) integrated satellite-high altitude platform (HAP) relaying networks for terrestrial multiusers with the existence of an eavesdropper is investigated. In this network, FSO is adopted to establish the link between the satellite and HAP for which it experiences Gamma-Gamma distributions under different detection schemes (i.e., heterodyne and intensity modulation direct detection). The transmission between the amplify-and-forward (AF) relaying HAP and terrestrial multiusers is through the RF and is modeled as shadowed-Rician fading distribution. Owning to broadcasting nature of RF link, it is assumed that an eavesdropper attempts to intercept the users’ confidential message, and the eavesdropper link is subjected to Rician distributions. Specifically, the closed-form expression for the system equivalent end-to-end cumulative distribution function is derived by exploiting the Meijer’s G and Fox’s H functions. Based on this expression, the exact closed-form expressions of the system connection outage probability, secrecy outage probability, and strictly positive secrecy capacity are obtained under the different detection schemes at HAP. Moreover, the asymptotic analyze of the system secrecy outage probability is provided to obtain more physical insights. Furthermore, the accuracy of all the derived analytical closed-form expressions is verified through the Monte-Carlo simulations. In addition, the impact of atmospheric turbulence, pointing errors, shadowing severity parameters, and Rician factor are thoroughly evaluated. Under the same system conditions, the results depict that heterodyne detection outperforms the intensity modulation direct detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Wireless Communication (OWC) Systems)

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11 pages, 2779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Sensitivity Fiber Gas Pressure Sensor with Two Separated Fabry–Pérot Interferometers Based on the Vernier Effect

by Xiaokang Song, Liangtao Hou, Xiangyu Wei, Hang Su, Chang Li, Yan Li and Lingling Ran

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010031 - 04 Jan 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2132

Abstract

A high sensitivity optical fiber gas pressure sensor based on paralleled Fabry–Pérot interferometers (FPIs) was demonstrated. One micro-cavity FPI is used as a reference FPI (FPI-1) to generate a Vernier effect and the other FPI (FPI-2) is used as a sensing tip. Both [...] Read more.

A high sensitivity optical fiber gas pressure sensor based on paralleled Fabry–Pérot interferometers (FPIs) was demonstrated. One micro-cavity FPI is used as a reference FPI (FPI-1) to generate a Vernier effect and the other FPI (FPI-2) is used as a sensing tip. Both FPIs are connected by a 3-dB coupler to form a paralleled structure. The FPI-1 was fabricated by fusion splicing a piece of hollow core fiber (HCF) between two sections of single-mode fibers (SMF), whereas FPI-2 was formed by fusion splicing a section of HCF between SMF and a piece of HCF with a slightly smaller inner diameter for sensing pressure. The gas pressure sensitivity was amplified from 4 nm/MPa of single FPI to 45.76 nm/MPa of paralleled FPIs with an amplification factor of 11.44 and a linearity of 99.9%. Compared with the traditional fiber gas pressure sensors, the proposed sensor showed great advantages in sensitivity, mechanical strength, cost, and temperature influence resistant, which has potential in adverse-circumstance gas pressure sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Sensing)

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38 pages, 1714 KiB

Open AccessReview

Machine Learning Applications for Short Reach Optical Communication

by Yapeng Xie, Yitong Wang, Sithamparanathan Kandeepan and Ke Wang

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010030 - 04 Jan 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6305

Abstract

With the rapid development of optical communication systems, more advanced techniques conventionally used in long-haul transmissions have gradually entered systems covering shorter distances below 100 km, where higher-speed connections are required in various applications, such as the optical access networks, inter- and intra-data [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of optical communication systems, more advanced techniques conventionally used in long-haul transmissions have gradually entered systems covering shorter distances below 100 km, where higher-speed connections are required in various applications, such as the optical access networks, inter- and intra-data center interconnects, mobile fronthaul, and in-building and indoor communications. One of the techniques that has attracted intensive interests in short-reach optical communications is machine learning (ML). Due to its robust problem-solving, decision-making, and pattern recognition capabilities, ML techniques have become an essential solution for many challenging aspects. In particular, taking advantage of their high accuracy, adaptability, and implementation efficiency, ML has been widely studied in short-reach optical communications for optical performance monitoring (OPM), modulation format identification (MFI), signal processing and in-building/indoor optical wireless communications. Compared with long-reach communications, the ML techniques used in short-reach communications have more stringent complexity and cost requirements, and also need to be more sensitive. In this paper, a comprehensive review of various ML methods and their applications in short-reach optical communications are presented and discussed, focusing on existing and potential advantages, limitations and prospective trends. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interplay between Photonics and Machine Learning)

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10 pages, 6876 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Competition between Entrainment Phenomenon and Chaos in a Quantum-Cascade Laser under Strong Optical Reinjection

by Olivier Spitz, Lauréline Durupt and Frédéric Grillot

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010029 - 04 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1696

Abstract

The topic of external optical feedback in quantum-cascade lasers is relevant for stability and beam-properties considerations. Albeit less sensitive to external optical feedback than other lasers, quantum-cascade lasers can exhibit several behaviors under such feedback, and those are relevant for a large panel [...] Read more.

The topic of external optical feedback in quantum-cascade lasers is relevant for stability and beam-properties considerations. Albeit less sensitive to external optical feedback than other lasers, quantum-cascade lasers can exhibit several behaviors under such feedback, and those are relevant for a large panel of applications, from communication to ranging and sensing. This work focused on a packaged Fabry–Perot quantum-cascade laser under strong external optical feedback and shows the influence of the beam-splitter characteristics on the optical power properties of this commercially available laser. The packaged quantum-cascade laser showed extended conditions of operation when subject to strong optical feedback, and the maximum power that can be extracted from the external cavity was also increased. When adding a periodic electrical perturbation, various non-linear dynamics were observed, and this complements previous efforts about the entrainment phenomenon in monomode quantum-cascade lasers, with the view of optimizing private communication based on mid-infrared quantum-cascade lasers. Overall, this work is a step forward in understanding the behavior of the complex quantum-cascade-laser structure when it is subjected to external optical feedback. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mid-Infrared Quantum Cascade Lasers)

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19 pages, 1974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Asymmetric Coupling Strength on Nonlinear Dynamics of Two Mutually Long-Delay-Coupled Semiconductor Lasers

by Bin-Kai Liao, Chin-Hao Tseng, Yu-Chen Chu and Sheng-Kwang Hwang

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010028 - 03 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1517

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of asymmetric coupling strength on nonlinear dynamics of two mutually long-delay-coupled semiconductor lasers through both experimental and numerical efforts. Dynamical maps and spectral features of dynamical states are analyzed as a function of the coupling strength and detuning [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of asymmetric coupling strength on nonlinear dynamics of two mutually long-delay-coupled semiconductor lasers through both experimental and numerical efforts. Dynamical maps and spectral features of dynamical states are analyzed as a function of the coupling strength and detuning frequency for a fixed coupling delay time. Symmetry in the coupling strength of the two lasers, in general, symmetrizes their dynamical behaviors and the corresponding spectral features. Slight to moderate asymmetry in the coupling strength moderately changes their dynamical behaviors from the ones when the coupling strength is symmetric, but does not break the symmetry of their dynamical behaviors and the corresponding spectral features. High asymmetry in the coupling strength not only strongly changes their dynamical behaviors from the ones when the coupling strength is symmetric, but also breaks the symmetry of their dynamical behaviors and the corresponding spectral features. Evolution of the dynamical behaviors from symmetry to asymmetry between the two lasers is identified. Experimental observations and numerical predictions agree not only qualitatively to a high extent but also quantitatively to a moderate extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nonlinear Dynamics of Semiconductor Lasers and Their Applications)

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15 pages, 12542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Asymmetric Concentric Microring Resonator Label-Free Biosensors

by Pedro Chamorro-Posada

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010027 - 03 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1588

Abstract

A study of label-free silicon nitride asymmetric double-microring resonators is presented. The use of highly accurate 3D vector modal techniques permits an extensive exploration of the parameter space defining the architecture of the proposed device in the search for optimal geometries and reaching [...] Read more.

A study of label-free silicon nitride asymmetric double-microring resonators is presented. The use of highly accurate 3D vector modal techniques permits an extensive exploration of the parameter space defining the architecture of the proposed device in the search for optimal geometries and reaching configurations not addressed in previous studies that had been limited to symmetrical configurations. Asymmetry, on the other hand, permits to access resonances that exploit the radiation-quenching properties of the structure in an optimal way. The analysis presented also includes the effect of absorption in the sensor aqueous cladding that is generally omitted. The results of the numerical survey indicate that the optimized geometries bring about a substantive performance improvement at small microring radii that are impractical for more conventional single-ring geometries due to the high radiation losses. Therefore, lower footprint devices, and a larger scale of integration, can be attained with the proposed structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Silicon Photonics)

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13 pages, 3187 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Versatile Terahertz Chemical Microscope and Its Application for the Detection of Histamine

by Jin Wang, Kosuke Sato, Yuichi Yoshida, Kenji Sakai and Toshihiko Kiwa

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010026 - 03 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2934

Abstract

Terahertz waves have gained increasingly more attention because of their unique characteristics and great potential in a variety of fields. In this study, we introduced the recent progress of our versatile terahertz chemical microscope (TCM) in the detection of small biomolecules, ions, cancer [...] Read more.

Terahertz waves have gained increasingly more attention because of their unique characteristics and great potential in a variety of fields. In this study, we introduced the recent progress of our versatile terahertz chemical microscope (TCM) in the detection of small biomolecules, ions, cancer cells, and antibody–antigen immunoassaying. We highlight the advantages of our TCM for chemical sensing and biosensing, such as label-free, high-sensitivity, rapid response, non-pretreatment, and minute amount sample consumption, compared with conventional methods. Furthermore, we demonstrated its new application in detection of allergic-related histamine at low concentration in buffer solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terahertz (THz) Science in Advanced Materials, Devices and Systems)

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15 pages, 7389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Mode-Area Dispersion on Nonlinear Pulse Propagation in Gas-Filled Anti-Resonant Hollow-Core Fiber

by Ying Wan, Md Imran Hasan and Wonkeun Chang

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010025 - 01 Jan 2022

Viewed by 1843

Abstract

We numerically investigate the effect of mode-area dispersion in a tubular-type anti-resonant hollow-core fiber by using a modified generalized nonlinear Schrödinger equation that takes into account the wavelength-dependent mode area in its nonlinear term. The pulse evolution dynamics with and without the effect [...] Read more.

We numerically investigate the effect of mode-area dispersion in a tubular-type anti-resonant hollow-core fiber by using a modified generalized nonlinear Schrödinger equation that takes into account the wavelength-dependent mode area in its nonlinear term. The pulse evolution dynamics with and without the effect of mode-area dispersion are compared and analyzed. We show that strong dispersion of the mode area in the proximity of the cladding wall thickness-induced resonances has a significant impact on the soliton pulse propagation, resulting in considerable changes in the conversion efficiencies in nonlinear frequency mixing processes. The differences become more prominent when the pump has higher energy and is nearer to a resonance. Hence, the mode-area dispersion must be accounted for when modeling such a case. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Crystal Fibers: Design, Fabrication and Applications)

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15 pages, 6745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method of Range Walk Error Correction in SiPM LiDAR with Photon Threshold Detection

by Runze Yang, Yumei Tang, Zeyu Fu, Jian Qiu and Kefu Liu

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010024 - 01 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3137

Abstract

A silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) LiDAR with photon threshold detection can achieve high dynamic performance. However, the number fluctuations of echo signal photons lead to the range walk error (RWE) in SiPM LIDARs. This paper derives the RWE model of SiPM LiDAR by using [...] Read more.

A silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) LiDAR with photon threshold detection can achieve high dynamic performance. However, the number fluctuations of echo signal photons lead to the range walk error (RWE) in SiPM LIDARs. This paper derives the RWE model of SiPM LiDAR by using the LiDAR equation and statistical property of SiPM’s response. Based on the LiDAR system parameters and the echo signal intensity, which is obtained through the SiPM’s photon-number-resolving capability, the RWE is calculated through the proposed model. After that, we carry out experiments to verify its effectiveness. The result shows that the method reduces the RWE in TOF measurements using photon threshold detection from 36.57 cm to the mean deviation of 1.95 cm, with the number of detected photons fluctuating from 1.3 to 46.5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Sensing)

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15 pages, 3078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Hole and Electron Transport Layer for Highly Efficient Lead-Free Cs₂TiBr₆-Based Perovskite Solar Cell

by Syed Abdul Moiz

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010023 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3645

Abstract

The methylammonium lead halide solar cell has attracted a great deal of attention due to its lightweight, low cost, and simple fabrication and processing. Despite these advantages, these cells are still far from commercialization because of their lead-based toxicity. Among lead-free perovskites, cesium-titanium [...] Read more.

The methylammonium lead halide solar cell has attracted a great deal of attention due to its lightweight, low cost, and simple fabrication and processing. Despite these advantages, these cells are still far from commercialization because of their lead-based toxicity. Among lead-free perovskites, cesium-titanium (IV) bromide (Cs₂TiBr₆) is considered one of the best alternatives, but it faces a lack of higher PCE (power conversion efficiency) due to the unavailability of the matched hole and electron transport layers. Therefore, in this study, the ideal hole and electron transport layer parameters for the Cs₂TiBr₆-based solar cell were determined and discussed based on a simulation through SCAPS-1D software. It was observed that the maximum PCE of 20.4% could be achieved by using the proper hole and electron transport layers with optimized parameters such as energy bandgap, electron affinity, doping density, and thickness. Unfortunately, no hole and electron transport material with the required electronic structure was found. Then, polymer NPB and CeO_x were selected as hole and electron transport layers, respectively, based on their closed electronic structure compared to the simulation results, and, hence, the maximum PCE was found as ~17.94% for the proposed CeOx/Cs₂TiBr₆/NPB solar cell. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaic Materials and Devices)

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10 pages, 2195 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Ultrahigh-Q Tunable Terahertz Absorber Based on Bulk Dirac Semimetal with Surface Lattice Resonance

by Zhiyong Wang, Yanghong Ou, Shiyu Wang, Yanzi Meng, Zi Wang, Xiang Zhai, Lingling Wang and Shengxuan Xia

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010022 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2015

Abstract

In this paper, we present an easy-to-implement metamaterial absorber based on bulk Dirac semimetal (BDS). The proposed device not only obtains an ultrahigh quality factor (Q-factor) of 4133 and dynamic adjustability at high absorption, but also exhibits an excellent sensing performance [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present an easy-to-implement metamaterial absorber based on bulk Dirac semimetal (BDS). The proposed device not only obtains an ultrahigh quality factor (Q-factor) of 4133 and dynamic adjustability at high absorption, but also exhibits an excellent sensing performance with a figure of merit (FOM) of 4125. These outstanding properties are explained by the surface lattice resonance, which allows us to improve the quality factor significantly and control resonance wavelength precisely by tuning the unit cell periods, Fermi energy of the BDS, and structural parameters. Our findings can provide high-performance applications in terahertz filtering, detection, and biochemical sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optoelectronics and Optical Materials)

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12 pages, 3949 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Adaptive Wave-Front Shaping and Beam Focusing through Fiber Bundles for High-Resolution Bioimaging

by Matvey S. Pochechuev, Ilya V. Fedotov, Maxim A. Solotenkov, Maria S. Andreeva, Aleksandr A. Lanin, Andrei B. Fedotov and Aleksei M. Zheltikov

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010021 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2223

Abstract

We demonstrate an adaptive wave-front shaping of optical beams transmitted through fiber bundles as a powerful resource for multisite, high-resolution bioimaging. With the phases of all the beamlets delivered through up to 6000 different fibers within the fiber bundle controlled individually, by means [...] Read more.

We demonstrate an adaptive wave-front shaping of optical beams transmitted through fiber bundles as a powerful resource for multisite, high-resolution bioimaging. With the phases of all the beamlets delivered through up to 6000 different fibers within the fiber bundle controlled individually, by means of a high-definition spatial light modulator, the overall beam transmitted through the fiber bundle can be focused into a beam waist with a diameter less than 1 μm within a targeted area in a biotissue, providing a diffraction-limited spatial resolution adequate for single-cell or even subcellular bioimaging. The field intensity in the adaptively-focused continuous-wave laser beam in our fiber-bundle-imaging setting is more than two orders of magnitude higher than the intensity of the speckle background. Once robust beam focusing was achieved with a suitable phase profile across the input face of the fiber bundle, the beam focus can be scanned over a targeted area with no need for a further adaptive search, by applying a physically intuitive, wave-front-tilting phase mask on the field of input beamlets. This method of beam-focus scanning promises imaging speeds compatible with the requirements of in vivo calcium imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Topical Problems of Biophotonics)

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14 pages, 18958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ex-Vivo Exposure on Biological Tissues in the 2-μm Spectral Range with an All-Fiber Continuous-Wave Holmium Laser

by Mariya S. Kopyeva, Serafima A. Filatova, Vladimir A. Kamynin, Anton I. Trikshev, Elizaveta I. Kozlikina, Vadim V. Astashov, Victor B. Loschenov and Vladimir B. Tsvetkov

Photonics 2022, 9(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9010020 - 30 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1872

Abstract

We present the results on the interaction of an all-fiber Holmium-doped laser CW radiation at a wavelength of 2100 nm with soft tissues and compare it with the other results obtained by the most used solid-state laser systems. Ex-vivo single spot experiments were [...] Read more.

We present the results on the interaction of an all-fiber Holmium-doped laser CW radiation at a wavelength of 2100 nm with soft tissues and compare it with the other results obtained by the most used solid-state laser systems. Ex-vivo single spot experiments were carried out on the porcine longissimus muscles by varying the laser impact parameters in a wide range (average output power 0.3, 0.5 and 1.1 W; exposure time 5, 30 and 60 s). Evaluation of the laser radiation exposure was carried out by the size of coagulation and ablation zones on the morphological study. Exposure to a power of 0.3 W (1.5–18 J of applied energy) caused only reversible changes in the tissues. The highest applied energy of 66 J for 1.1 W and a 60-s exposure resulted in a maximum ablation depth of approximately 1.2 mm, with an ablation efficiency of 35%. We have shown that it is not necessary to use high powers of CW radiation, such as 5–10 W in the solid-state systems to provide the destructive effects. Similar results can be achieved at lower powers using the simple all-fiber Holmium laser based on the standard single-mode fiber, which could provide higher power densities and be more convenient to manufacture and use. The obtained results may be valuable as an additional experimental point in the field of existing results, which in the future will allow one to create a simple optimal laser system for medical purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Specialty Optical Fibers, Fiber Lasers and Their Applications)

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Photonics, Volume 9, Issue 1 (January 2022) – 49 articles

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