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Aerospace
Volume 8
Issue 11
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Aerospace, Volume 8, Issue 11 (November 2021) – 46 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): An idealized 1:2 scale demonstrator and a numerical parameter optimization algorithm are proposed to closely reproduce the deformation shape and, thus, spatial strain directions of an aerodynamically loaded civil aircraft spoiler using only four concentrated loads. Cost-efficient experimental studies on demonstrators of increasing complexity are an intermediate step to transfer knowledge from coupons to full-scale structures and to test novel sensor systems that depend on or are affected by mechanical strains. Finite element simulations are performed for static strength analysis and for comparison to experimental measurements. Using the developed idealized demonstrator, strain-based structural health monitoring systems can be tested under conditions that approximate operational aerodynamic pressure loads, while test effort and costs are significantly reduced.View this paper
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36 pages, 1504 KiB  
Article
On a Novel Approximate Solution to the Inhomogeneous Euler–Bernoulli Equation with an Application to Aeroelastics
by Dominique Fleischmann and László Könözsy
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110356 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2636
Abstract
This paper focuses on the development of an explicit finite difference numerical method for approximating the solution of the inhomogeneous fourth-order Euler–Bernoulli beam bending equation with velocity-dependent damping and second moment of area, mass and elastic modulus distribution varying with distance along the [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on the development of an explicit finite difference numerical method for approximating the solution of the inhomogeneous fourth-order Euler–Bernoulli beam bending equation with velocity-dependent damping and second moment of area, mass and elastic modulus distribution varying with distance along the beam. We verify the method by comparing its predictions with an exact analytical solution of the homogeneous equation, we use the generalised Richardson extrapolation to show that the method is grid convergent and we extend the application of the Lax–Richtmyer stability criteria to higher-order schemes to ensure that it is numerically stable. Finally, we present three sets of computational experiments. The first set simulates the behaviour of the un-loaded beam and is validated against the analytic solution. The second set simulates the time-dependent dynamic behaviour of a damped beam of varying stiffness and mass distributions under arbitrary externally applied loading in an aeroelastic analysis setting by approximating the inhomogeneous equation using the finite difference method derived here. We compare the third set of simulations of the steady-state deflection with the results of static beam bending experiments conducted at Cranfield University. Overall, we developed an accurate, stable and convergent numerical framework for solving the inhomogeneous Euler–Bernoulli equation over a wide range of boundary conditions. Aircraft manufacturers are starting to consider configurations with increased wing aspect ratios and reduced structural weight which lead to more slender and flexible designs. Aeroelastic analysis now plays a central role in the design process. Efficient computational tools for the prediction of the deformation of wings under external loads are in demand and this has motivated the work carried out in this paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Aerospace Sciences and Technology II)
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16 pages, 5323 KiB  
Article
Development of a 6-DOF Testing Platform for Multirotor Flying Vehicles with Suspended Loads
by Saad M. S. Mukras and Hanafy M. Omar
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110355 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3116
Abstract
The development of multirotor vehicles can often be a dangerous and costly undertaking due to the possibility of crashes resulting from faulty controllers. The matter of safety in such activities has primarily been addressed through the use of testbeds. However, testbeds for testing [...] Read more.
The development of multirotor vehicles can often be a dangerous and costly undertaking due to the possibility of crashes resulting from faulty controllers. The matter of safety in such activities has primarily been addressed through the use of testbeds. However, testbeds for testing multirotor vehicles with suspended loads have previously not been reported. In this study, a simple yet novel testing platform was designed and built to aid in testing and evaluating the performances of multirotor flying vehicles, including vehicles with suspended loads. The platform allows the flying vehicle to move with all six degrees of freedom (DOF). Single or three-DOF motions can also be performed. Moreover, the platform was designed to enable the determination of the mass properties (center of mass and moments of inertia) of small multirotor vehicles (which are usually required in the development of new control systems). The applicability of the test platform for the in-flight performance testing of a multirotor vehicle was successfully demonstrated using a Holybro X500 quadcopter with a suspended load. The test platform was also successfully used to determine the mass properties of the vehicle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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19 pages, 6114 KiB  
Article
Estimation and Separation of Longitudinal Dynamic Stability Derivatives with Forced Oscillation Method Using Computational Fluid Dynamics
by Nadhie Juliawan, Hyoung-Seog Chung, Jae-Woo Lee and Sangho Kim
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110354 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4032
Abstract
This paper focuses on estimating dynamic stability derivatives using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based force oscillation method, and on separating the coupled dynamic derivatives terms obtained from the method. A transient RANS solver is used to calculate the time history of aerodynamic moments [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on estimating dynamic stability derivatives using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based force oscillation method, and on separating the coupled dynamic derivatives terms obtained from the method. A transient RANS solver is used to calculate the time history of aerodynamic moments for a test model oscillating about the center of gravity, from which the coupled dynamic derivatives are estimated. The separation of the coupled derivatives term is carried out by simulating simple harmonic oscillation motions such as plunging motion and flapping motion which can isolate the pitching moment due to AOA rate (Cmα˙) and the pitching moment due to pitch rate (Cmq), respectively. The periodic motions are implemented using a CFD dynamic mesh technique with user-defined function (UDF). For the validation test, steady and unsteady simulations are performed on the Army-Navy Finner Missile model. The static aerodynamic moments and pressure distribution, as well as the coupled dynamic derivative results from the pitching oscillation mode, show good agreement with the previously published wind tunnel tests and CFD analysis data. In order to separate the coupled derivative terms, two additional harmonic oscillation modes of plunging and flapping motions are tested with the angle of attack variations from 0 to 85 degrees at a supersonic speed to provide real insight on the missile maneuverability. The cross-validation study between the three oscillation modes indicates the summation of the individual plunging and flapping results becoming nearly identical to the coupled derivative results from the pitching motion, which implies the entire set of coupled and separated dynamic derivative terms can be effectively estimated with only two out of three modes. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed to determine the efficient approach of estimating the dynamic stability derivatives using the forced oscillation method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physics-based, High-Fidelity Computational modelling for Aerospace Application)
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13 pages, 4355 KiB  
Article
COVID-19 Pandemic—Financial Consequences for Polish Airports—Selected Aspects
by Agnieszka Barczak
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110353 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1714
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has reduced the mobility of urban residents on an international level. Tourist air traffic was suspended as one of many activities. As a result, the aviation industry has suffered losses at various levels. In addition to carriers, airports are also [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic has reduced the mobility of urban residents on an international level. Tourist air traffic was suspended as one of many activities. As a result, the aviation industry has suffered losses at various levels. In addition to carriers, airports are also suffering due to the effects of the pandemic. Their income comes mainly from charges for take-offs and landings of airplanes, passenger charges, and commercial and restaurant activity. In this paper, the authors attempt to estimate the level of losses incurred by six Polish airports in relation to passenger charges. Based on the data for the years 2015–2019, the forecasts of passenger flows for the year 2020 were estimated using the seasonality indicator method, the method of one-name period trends, and models of linear trends with seasonality. Research has shown that the total losses of the examined airports for the year 2020 amounted to approximately 290 million EUR, and these are losses resulting only from the lack of fees charged for servicing passengers at the airports. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future Aerospace Transportation System: Connecting A Post COVID-19 World)
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18 pages, 7815 KiB  
Article
Improved Supersonic Turbulent Flow Characteristics Using Non-Linear Eddy Viscosity Relation in RANS and HPC-Enabled LES
by Kalyani Bhide, Kiran Siddappaji, Shaaban Abdallah and Kurt Roberts
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110352 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2582
Abstract
A majority of the eddy viscosity models for supersonic turbulent flow are based on linear relationship between Reynolds stresses and mean strain rate. The validity of these models can be improved by introducing non-linearity in relation as RANS models offer advantages in terms [...] Read more.
A majority of the eddy viscosity models for supersonic turbulent flow are based on linear relationship between Reynolds stresses and mean strain rate. The validity of these models can be improved by introducing non-linearity in relation as RANS models offer advantages in terms of reduced turnaround times typical of industry applications. With these benefits, the present work utilizes quadratic constitutive relation (QCR) with Menter’s k omega SST model to characterize the flowfield of rectangular jets. The sensitivity of this model with QCR, weighted towards diffusion, dissipation, and a combination of both, is addressed. Viscous large eddy simulations (LES) with WALE subgrid scale models are employed for qualitative comparisons using a commercial solver. Massively parallel LES are enabled by the new in-house 1088-core computing cluster at the University of Cincinnati and are also used for benchmarking. The nearfield results are validated with available experimental data and show good agreement in both fidelities. Flow characteristics, including the shear layer profiles, Reynolds stresses, and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) and its production are compared. LES reveal higher TKE production in the regions with highest Reynolds stresses. It is comparatively lower in QCR RANS. As a special case of TKE analysis in jets, a preliminary investigation of retropropulsion is outlined for rectangular nozzles for the first time. Improved flow behavior by implementation of a non-linear relationship between Reynolds stresses and mean strain rate is demonstrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Flow Mechanics)
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13 pages, 3502 KiB  
Article
Development of a Novel Hybrid Thermoplastic Material and Holistic Assessment of Its Application Potential
by Christos V. Katsiropoulos, Spiros G. Pantelakis, Marco Barile and Leonardo Lecce
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110351 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2119
Abstract
Τhe development of a novel hybrid thermoplastic prepreg material enabling the fabrication of next-generation recyclable composite aerostructures produced by affordable, automated technologies is presented in the present work. The new hybrid material is produced using automated equipment designed and developed for this reason. [...] Read more.
Τhe development of a novel hybrid thermoplastic prepreg material enabling the fabrication of next-generation recyclable composite aerostructures produced by affordable, automated technologies is presented in the present work. The new hybrid material is produced using automated equipment designed and developed for this reason. A preliminary assessment of the application of the new material is made to obtain material properties related to its processability as well as to its strength. A typical aeronautical flat skin panel has been identified and produced using an autoclave-based process in order to assess the potential of the new material for producing aircraft structural parts. Moreover, a newly developed holistic index is implemented to enable a more holistic comparison of the suitability of the materials used for the panel production. The aspects considered for the material comparison are the quality, the environmental footprint, and the cost. The results of the study pointed out that the hybrid thermoplastic material that has been developed represents a viable manufacturing option from an industrial point of view and that its implementation in structural component manufacturing leads to clear cost and environmental advantages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 11th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space to the Satisfaction of the European Citizens)
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9 pages, 1924 KiB  
Article
Aerodynamic Performance of a Nanostructure-Induced Multistable Shell
by Shenghui Yi, Lu Shen, Chih-Yung Wen, Xiaoqiao He and Jian Lu
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110350 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1786
Abstract
Multistable shells that have the ability to hold more than one stable configuration are promising for adaptive structures, especially for airfoil. In contrast to existing studies on bistable shells, which are well demonstrated by the Venus flytrap plant with the ability to feed [...] Read more.
Multistable shells that have the ability to hold more than one stable configuration are promising for adaptive structures, especially for airfoil. In contrast to existing studies on bistable shells, which are well demonstrated by the Venus flytrap plant with the ability to feed itself, this work experimentally studies the aerodynamic response of various stable configurations of a nanostructure-induced multistable shell. This multistable shell is manufactured by using nanotechnology and surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) to locally process nine circular zones in an original flat plate. The aerodynamic responses of eight stable configurations of the developed multistable shell, including four twisted configurations and four untwisted configurations with different cambers, are visually captured and quantitively measured in a wind tunnel. The results clearly demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing different controllable configurations to adjust the aerodynamic performance of the multistable shell. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioinspired Flying Systems)
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27 pages, 21525 KiB  
Article
Mutual Aerodynamic Interference Mechanism Analysis of an “X” Configuration Quadcopter
by Jianchuan Ye, Jiang Wang and Peijian Lv
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110349 - 16 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2128
Abstract
This paper studies the quadcopter’s mutual interference phenomenon. The flow field of the quadcopter at different flight speeds is simulated by solving the three-dimensional unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations with sliding mesh methods. “Virtual Modes” (VMs) are introduced to examine the mechanisms of [...] Read more.
This paper studies the quadcopter’s mutual interference phenomenon. The flow field of the quadcopter at different flight speeds is simulated by solving the three-dimensional unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations with sliding mesh methods. “Virtual Modes” (VMs) are introduced to examine the mechanisms of aerodynamic interference among the quadcopter’s components (front rotors, rear rotors, and fuselage). By comparing the aerodynamic forces of different VMs, this work shows that mutual interference to the front rotors can be negligible, interference to the rear rotors is due to the wake of front rotors and fuselage, and mutual interference to fuselage is caused by front and rear rotors. Only the rear rotors’ thrust and pitch moment as well as the lift of the fuselage are significant. At the flight speed of 5–15 m/s, the mutual interference causes 11% loss of thrust and 35% loss of pitching moment to the rear rotors; In the cases of hovering and 25 m/s forward flight, the interference is negligible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Unmanned Aerial Systems)
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13 pages, 432 KiB  
Article
A Context-Aware Language Model to Improve the Speech Recognition in Air Traffic Control
by Dongyue Guo, Zichen Zhang, Peng Fan, Jianwei Zhang and Bo Yang
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110348 - 16 Nov 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2631
Abstract
Recognizing isolated digits of the flight callsign is an important and challenging task for automatic speech recognition (ASR) in air traffic control (ATC). Fortunately, the flight callsign is a kind of prior ATC knowledge and is available from dynamic contextual information. In this [...] Read more.
Recognizing isolated digits of the flight callsign is an important and challenging task for automatic speech recognition (ASR) in air traffic control (ATC). Fortunately, the flight callsign is a kind of prior ATC knowledge and is available from dynamic contextual information. In this work, we attempt to utilize this prior knowledge to improve the performance of the callsign identification by integrating it into the language model (LM). The proposed approach is named context-aware language model (CALM), which can be applied for both the ASR decoding and rescoring phase. The proposed model is implemented with an encoder–decoder architecture, in which an extra context encoder is proposed to consider the contextual information. A shared embedding layer is designed to capture the correlations between the ASR text and contextual information. The context attention is introduced to learn discriminative representations to support the decoder module. Finally, the proposed approach is validated with an end-to-end ASR model on a multilingual real-world corpus (ATCSpeech). Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed CALM outperforms other baselines for both the ASR and callsign identification task, and can be practically migrated to a real-time environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Controlling Speech Understanding and Air Traffic Safety Enhancement Based on AI)
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16 pages, 3040 KiB  
Article
An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Troubleshooting Mode Selection Method Based on SIF-SVM with Fault Phenomena Text Record
by Linchao Yang, Guozhu Jia, Ke Zheng, Fajie Wei, Xing Pan, Wenbing Chang and Shenghan Zhou
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110347 - 15 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1414
Abstract
At present, the research on fault analysis based on text data focuses on fault diagnosis and classification, but it rarely suggests how to use that information to troubleshoot faults reported in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Selecting the exact troubleshooting procedure to address faults [...] Read more.
At present, the research on fault analysis based on text data focuses on fault diagnosis and classification, but it rarely suggests how to use that information to troubleshoot faults reported in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Selecting the exact troubleshooting procedure to address faults reported by UAVs generally requires experienced technicians with professional equipment. To improve the efficiency of UAV troubleshooting, this paper proposed a troubleshooting mode selection method based on SIF-SVM (Serial information fusion and support vector machine) using the text feature data from fault description records. First, Word2Vec was used in text data feature extraction. Second, in order to increase the amount of information in the modeling data, we used the information fusion method. SVM was then used to construct the classification model for troubleshooting mode selection. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed model was verified by using the fault record data of a new fixed-wing UAV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Fault Detection)
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17 pages, 6122 KiB  
Article
Buckling Knockdown Factors of Composite Cylinders under Both Compression and Internal Pressure
by Do-Young Kim, Chang-Hoon Sim, Jae-Sang Park, Joon-Tae Yoo, Young-Ha Yoon and Keejoo Lee
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110346 - 15 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2579
Abstract
The internal pressure of a thin-walled cylindrical structure under axial compression may improve the buckling stability by relieving loads and reducing initial imperfections. In this study, the effect of internal pressure on the buckling knockdown factor is investigated for axially compressed thin-walled composite [...] Read more.
The internal pressure of a thin-walled cylindrical structure under axial compression may improve the buckling stability by relieving loads and reducing initial imperfections. In this study, the effect of internal pressure on the buckling knockdown factor is investigated for axially compressed thin-walled composite cylinders with different shell thickness ratios and slenderness ratios. Various shell thickness ratios and slenderness ratios are considered when the buckling knockdown factor is derived for the thin-walled composite cylinders under both axial compression and internal pressure. Nonlinear post-buckling analyses are conducted using the nonlinear finite element analysis program, ABAQUS. The single perturbation load approach is used to represent the geometric initial imperfection of thin-walled composite cylinders. For cases with the axial compressive force only, the buckling knockdown factor decreases as the shell thickness ratio increases or as the slenderness ratio increases. When the internal pressure is considered simultaneously with the axial compressive force, the buckling knockdown factor decreases as the slenderness ratio increases but increases as the shell thickness ratio increases. The buckling knockdown factors considering the internal pressure and axial compressions are higher by 2.67% to 38.98% compared with the knockdown factors considering the axial compressive force only. The results show the significant effect of the internal pressure, particularly for thinner composite cylinders, and that the buckling knockdown factors may be enhanced for all the shell thickness ratios and slenderness ratios considered in this study when the internal pressure is applied to the cylinder. Full article
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16 pages, 5593 KiB  
Article
Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Oil-Guiding Splash Lubrication in Light Helicopter’s Reducers
by Mei Yin, Xi Chen, Yu Dai, Duan Yang, Lanjin Xu and Xiang Zhu
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110345 - 15 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2162
Abstract
Limited by the space and weight of the reducer, it is difficult to use traditional oil-jet lubrication and splash lubrication for a light helicopter, so an oil-guiding splash lubrication method is adopted as a research object in this paper. Firstly, the lubrication performance [...] Read more.
Limited by the space and weight of the reducer, it is difficult to use traditional oil-jet lubrication and splash lubrication for a light helicopter, so an oil-guiding splash lubrication method is adopted as a research object in this paper. Firstly, the lubrication performance of the oil-guiding cylinder in the main reducer under different rotating speeds, oil levels, and flight attitudes is investigated based on the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method. Then, a specific test rig is developed, and lubrication tests are carried out to verify the feasibility and correctness of the simulation. These results show that oil level, rotating speed, and flight attitude have a great influence on splash lubrication performance. Full article
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19 pages, 6653 KiB  
Article
A Substructure Synthesis Method with Nonlinear ROM Including Geometric Nonlinearities
by Chao An, Yang Meng, Changchuan Xie and Chao Yang
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110344 - 14 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1563
Abstract
Large flexible aircraft are often accompanied by large deformations during flight leading to obvious geometric nonlinearities in response. Geometric nonlinear dynamic response simulations based on full-order models often carry unbearable computing burden. Meanwhile, geometric nonlinearities are caused by large flexible wings in most [...] Read more.
Large flexible aircraft are often accompanied by large deformations during flight leading to obvious geometric nonlinearities in response. Geometric nonlinear dynamic response simulations based on full-order models often carry unbearable computing burden. Meanwhile, geometric nonlinearities are caused by large flexible wings in most cases and the deformation of fuselages is small. Analyzing the whole aircraft as a nonlinear structure will greatly increase the analysis complexity and cost. The analysis of complicated aircraft structures can be more efficient and simplified if subcomponents can be divided and treated. This paper aims to develop a hybrid interface substructure synthesis method by expanding the nonlinear reduced-order model (ROM) with the implicit condensation and expansion (ICE) approach, to estimate the dynamic transient response for aircraft structures including geometric nonlinearities. A small number of linear modes are used to construct a nonlinear ROM for substructures with large deformation, and linear substructures with small deformation can also be assembled comprehensively. The method proposed is compatible with finite element method (FEM), allowing for realistic engineering model analysis. Numerical examples with large flexible aircraft models are calculated to validate the accuracy and efficiency of this method contrasted with nonlinear FEM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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34 pages, 1321 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Objective Coverage Path Planning Algorithm for UAVs to Cover Spatially Distributed Regions in Urban Environments
by Abdul Majeed and Seong Oun Hwang
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110343 - 13 Nov 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4465
Abstract
This paper presents a multi-objective coverage flight path planning algorithm that finds minimum length, collision-free, and flyable paths for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in three-dimensional (3D) urban environments inhabiting multiple obstacles for covering spatially distributed regions. In many practical applications, UAVs are often [...] Read more.
This paper presents a multi-objective coverage flight path planning algorithm that finds minimum length, collision-free, and flyable paths for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in three-dimensional (3D) urban environments inhabiting multiple obstacles for covering spatially distributed regions. In many practical applications, UAVs are often required to fully cover multiple spatially distributed regions located in the 3D urban environments while avoiding obstacles. This problem is relatively complex since it requires the optimization of both inter (e.g., traveling from one region/city to another) and intra-regional (e.g., within a region/city) paths. To solve this complex problem, we find the traversal order of each area of interest (AOI) in the form of a coarse tour (i.e., graph) with the help of an ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm by formulating it as a traveling salesman problem (TSP) from the center of each AOI, which is subsequently optimized. The intra-regional path finding problem is solved with the integration of fitting sensors’ footprints sweeps (SFS) and sparse waypoint graphs (SWG) in the AOI. To find a path that covers all accessible points of an AOI, we fit fewer, longest, and smooth SFSs in such a way that most parts of an AOI can be covered with fewer sweeps. Furthermore, the low-cost traversal order of each SFS is computed, and SWG is constructed by connecting the SFSs while respecting the global and local constraints. It finds a global solution (i.e., inter + intra-regional path) without sacrificing the guarantees on computing time, number of turning maneuvers, perfect coverage, path overlapping, and path length. The results obtained from various representative scenarios show that proposed algorithm is able to compute low-cost coverage paths for UAV navigation in urban environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning in Aerospace Trajectory Optimization, Guidance and Control)
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25 pages, 4876 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Energy Utilization and Losses for Jet-Propelled Vehicles
by Mohammad Abbas and David W. Riggins
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110342 - 12 Nov 2021
Viewed by 1648
Abstract
The global control volume-based energy utilization balance for an aerospace vehicle is extended to allow for the analysis of jet-propelled vehicles. The methodology is first developed for analyzing the energy utilization and entropy generation characteristics of jet engines without airframe considerations. This methodology, [...] Read more.
The global control volume-based energy utilization balance for an aerospace vehicle is extended to allow for the analysis of jet-propelled vehicles. The methodology is first developed for analyzing the energy utilization and entropy generation characteristics of jet engines without airframe considerations. This methodology, when combined with separate energy utilization analysis for an unpowered airframe, allows for the assessment of a powered vehicle. Wake entropy generation for a powered vehicle is shown to be the summation of the wake entropy generation associated with the propulsion system (no airframe) and the unpowered airframe. The fundamental relationship between overall entropy generation and the flight conditions required for maximum range and endurance of a powered vehicle are also derived. Example energy utilization results obtained for a modeled turbojet engine in off-design operation are provided; wake and engine component entropy generation characteristics are directly related to engine operation and flight conditions. This engine model is then integrated with a legacy (twin-engine) Northrop F-5E Tiger II airframe. The overall entropy generation temporal rate for the vehicle is minimized, as predicted by our analysis, at flight conditions corresponding to maximum endurance. For flight conditions corresponding to maximum range, the overall entropy spatial rate is minimized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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22 pages, 2806 KiB  
Article
Simulation of a GOx-GCH4 Rocket Combustor and the Effect of the GEKO Turbulence Model Coefficients
by Evgeny Strokach, Victor Zhukov, Igor Borovik, Andrej Sternin and Oscar J. Haidn
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110341 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2403
Abstract
In this study, a single injector methane-oxygen rocket combustor is numerically studied. The simulations included in this study are based on the hardware and experimental data from the Technical University of Munich. The focus is on the recently developed generalized k–ω turbulence model [...] Read more.
In this study, a single injector methane-oxygen rocket combustor is numerically studied. The simulations included in this study are based on the hardware and experimental data from the Technical University of Munich. The focus is on the recently developed generalized k–ω turbulence model (GEKO) and the effect of its adjustable coefficients on the pressure and on wall heat flux profiles, which are compared with the experimental data. It was found that the coefficients of ‘jet’, ‘near-wall’, and ‘mixing’ have a major impact, whereas the opposite can be deduced about the ‘separation’ parameter Csep, which highly influences the pressure and wall heat flux distributions due to the changes in the eddy-viscosity field. The simulation results are compared with the standard k–ε model, displaying a qualitatively and quantitatively similar behavior to the GEKO model at a Csep equal to unity. The default GEKO model shows a stable performance for three oxidizer-to-fuel ratios, enhancing the reliability of its use. The simulations are conducted using two chemical kinetic mechanisms: Zhukov and Kong and the more detailed RAMEC. The influence of the combustion model is of the same order as the influence of the turbulence model. In general, the numerical results present a good or satisfactory agreement with the experiment, and both GEKO at Csep = 1 or the standard k–ε model can be recommended for usage in the CFD simulations of rocket combustion chambers, as well as the Zhukov–Kong mechanism in conjunction with the flamelet approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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18 pages, 8488 KiB  
Article
Spillage-Adaptive Fixed-Geometry Bump Inlet of Wide Speed Range
by Zonghan Yu, Guoping Huang, Ruilin Wang and Omer Musa
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110340 - 11 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2586
Abstract
In this work, a new spillage-adaptive bump inlet concept is proposed to widen the speed range for hypersonic air-breathing flight vehicles. Various approaches to improve the inlet start-ability are summarized and compared, among which the bump-inlet pattern holds the merits of high lift-to-drag [...] Read more.
In this work, a new spillage-adaptive bump inlet concept is proposed to widen the speed range for hypersonic air-breathing flight vehicles. Various approaches to improve the inlet start-ability are summarized and compared, among which the bump-inlet pattern holds the merits of high lift-to-drag ratio, boundary layer diversion, and flexible integration ability. The proposed spillage-adaptive concept ensures the inlet starting performance by spilling extra mass flow away at low speed number conditions. The inlet presetting position is determined by synthetically evaluating the flow uniformity and the low-kinetic-energy fluid proportion. The numerical results show that the flow spillage of the inlet increases with the inflow speed decrease, which makes the inlet easier to start at low speed conditions (M 2.5–6.0). The effects of the boundary layer on spillage are also studied in this work. The new integration pattern releases the flow spillage potentials of three-dimensional inward-turning inlets by reasonably arranging the inlet compression on the bump surface. Future work will focus on the spillage-controllable design method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hypersonics: Emerging Research)
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20 pages, 6206 KiB  
Article
A Study of Recirculating Flow Fields Downstream of a Diverse Range of Axisymmetric Bluff Body Geometries Suitable for Flame Stabilization
by Georgios Paterakis, Konstantinos Souflas, Andreas Naxakis and Panayiotis Koutmos
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110339 - 10 Nov 2021
Viewed by 1958
Abstract
This work investigates the non-reacting time averaged and fluctuating flow field characteristics downstream of a variety of axisymmetric baffles, operating in combination with an upstream double-cavity premixer arrangement. The study aims to broaden knowledge with respect to the impact of different bluff body [...] Read more.
This work investigates the non-reacting time averaged and fluctuating flow field characteristics downstream of a variety of axisymmetric baffles, operating in combination with an upstream double-cavity premixer arrangement. The study aims to broaden knowledge with respect to the impact of different bluff body shapes, leading and trailing edge flow contours, blockage ratios and incoming flow profiles impinging on the bluff body, on the development and properties of the downstream recirculating wake. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements have been employed to obtain the mean and turbulent velocity fields throughout the centrally located recirculation zone and the adjacent developing toroidal shear layer. The results are helpful in demarcating the cold flow structure variations in the near wake of the examined baffles which support and, to some extent, determine the flame anchoring performance and heat release disposition in counterpart reacting configurations. Additionally, such results could also assist in the selection of the most suitable flame stabilization configuration for fuels possessing challenging combustion behavior such as multi-component heavier hydrocarbons, biofuels, or hydrogen blends. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Flow Mechanics)
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22 pages, 1444 KiB  
Article
Impact of Chinese and European Airspace Constraints on Trajectory Optimization
by Judith Rosenow, Gong Chen, Hartmut Fricke, Xiaoqian Sun and Yanjun Wang
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110338 - 10 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2307
Abstract
Air traffic trajectory optimization is a complex, multidimensional and non-linear optimization problem and requires a firm focus on the essential criteria. The criteria cover operational, economical, environmental, political, and social factors and differ from continent to continent. Since air traffic is a transcontinental [...] Read more.
Air traffic trajectory optimization is a complex, multidimensional and non-linear optimization problem and requires a firm focus on the essential criteria. The criteria cover operational, economical, environmental, political, and social factors and differ from continent to continent. Since air traffic is a transcontinental transport system, the criteria may also change during a single flight. Historic flight track data allow observation and assess real flights, to extract essential criteria and to derive optimization strategies to increase air traffic efficiency. Real flight track data from the Chinese and European air traffic show significant differences in the routing structure in both regions. For that reason, reference trajectories of historic ADS-B 24-h air traffic data in China and Europe have been extracted and analyzed regarding horizontal flight efficiency and the most restrictive criteria of trajectory optimization. We found that prohibited areas might be the most powerful reason to describe deviations from the great circle distance in the Chinese air traffic system. Atmospheric conditions, network requirements, aircraft types and flight planning procedures are similar in China and Europe and only have a minor impact on flight efficiency during the cruise phase. In a multi-criteria trajectory optimization of the extracted reference trajectories considering the weather, operational constraints and prohibited areas, we found that flown ground distances could be reduced by 255 km in the Chinese airspace and 2.3 km in the European airspace. The resultant reference trajectories can be used for further analysis to increase the efficiency of continental air traffic flows. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)
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17 pages, 3151 KiB  
Article
The Control Algorithm and Experimentation of Coaxial Rotor Aircraft Trajectory Tracking Based on Backstepping Sliding Mode
by Jiulong Xu, Yongping Hao, Junjie Wang and Lun Li
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110337 - 09 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2231
Abstract
In view of the uncertainty of model parameters, the influence of external disturbances and sensor noise on the flight of coaxial rotor aircraft during autonomous flight, a robust backstepping sliding mode control algorithm for the position and attitude feedback control system is studied [...] Read more.
In view of the uncertainty of model parameters, the influence of external disturbances and sensor noise on the flight of coaxial rotor aircraft during autonomous flight, a robust backstepping sliding mode control algorithm for the position and attitude feedback control system is studied to solve the trajectory tracking problem of an aircraft in the case of unknown external interference. In this study, a non-linear dynamic model based on a disturbed coaxial rotor aircraft was established for an unknown flight. Then, a non-linear robust backstepping sliding mode controller was designed, which was divided into two sub-controllers: the attitude controller and the position controller of the coaxial rotor aircraft. In the controller, virtual control was introduced to construct the Lyapunov function to ensure the stability of each subsystem. The effectiveness of the proposed controller was verified through numerical simulation. Finally, the effectiveness of the backstepping sliding mode control algorithm was verified by flight experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rotorcraft)
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23 pages, 7618 KiB  
Article
Design and Verification of Flush Air Data Sensing Module with Navigation and Temperature Information
by Xiaoshuai Fan, Zhenyu Jiang, Xibin Bai, Shifeng Zhang and Longbin Liu
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110336 - 09 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2201
Abstract
For aircraft which move in the atmosphere, the angle of attack and angle of sideslip cannot be measured precisely. This limits the precision of guidance and control systems, so the flush air data sensing system module with navigation and temperature information is designed [...] Read more.
For aircraft which move in the atmosphere, the angle of attack and angle of sideslip cannot be measured precisely. This limits the precision of guidance and control systems, so the flush air data sensing system module with navigation and temperature information is designed for atmosphere parameter calculation. In this work the traditional parameter calculation method is improved, and a new algorithm which combines pressure data, temperature data and navigation data to calculate the atmosphere parameters is proposed. A ground experiment test scheme with a simulated flight environment is designed and the measured data is fitted and filtered to complete the experiments. The flush air data sensing module gets pressure data and temperature data of the atmosphere with sensors, and the measured data is integrated with navigation information to calculate the aircraft parameters of the angle of attack, angle of sideslip, dynamic pressure, static pressure, Mach number and so on. Calculated parameters can be transmitted to guidance and control systems to improve the attitude and trajectory precision for an aircraft. Experimental results show that the software and hardware of the flush air data system module with navigation and temperature information work well, and communication of various devices is normal. The flight status of aircraft can be precisely calculated online, which provides a useful reference for prospective wind tunnel experiments and flight tests. Full article
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22 pages, 8027 KiB  
Article
State Monitoring Method for Tool Wear in Aerospace Manufacturing Processes Based on a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
by Wei Dai, Kui Liang and Bin Wang
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110335 - 08 Nov 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2159
Abstract
In the aerospace manufacturing field, tool conditions are essential to ensure the production quality for aerospace parts and reduce processing failures. Therefore, it is extremely necessary to develop a suitable tool condition monitoring method. Thus, we propose a tool wear process state monitoring [...] Read more.
In the aerospace manufacturing field, tool conditions are essential to ensure the production quality for aerospace parts and reduce processing failures. Therefore, it is extremely necessary to develop a suitable tool condition monitoring method. Thus, we propose a tool wear process state monitoring method for aerospace manufacturing processes based on convolutional neural networks to recognize intermediate abnormal states in multi-stage processes. There are two innovations and advantages of the proposed approach: one is that the criteria for judging abnormal conditions are extended, which is more useful for practical application. The other is that the proposed approach solved the influence of feature-to-recognition stability. Firstly, the tool wear level was divided into different state modes according to the probability density interval based on the kernel density estimation (KDE), and the corresponding state modes were connected to obtain the point-to-point control limit. Then, the state recognition model based on a convolutional neural network (CNN) was developed, and the sensitivity of the monitoring window was considered in the model. Finally, open-source datasets were used to verify the feasibility of the proposed method, and the results demonstrated the applicability of the proposed method in practice for tool condition monitoring. Full article
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25 pages, 9738 KiB  
Article
Model Updating and Aeroelastic Correlation of a Scaled Wind Tunnel Model for Active Flutter Suppression Test
by Domenico Di Leone, Francesco Lo Balbo, Alessandro De Gaspari and Sergio Ricci
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110334 - 07 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2790
Abstract
This article presents a modal correlation and update carried out on an aeroelastic wind tunnel demonstrator representing a conventional passenger transport aircraft. The aim of this work is the setup of a corresponding numerical model that is able to capture the flutter characteristics [...] Read more.
This article presents a modal correlation and update carried out on an aeroelastic wind tunnel demonstrator representing a conventional passenger transport aircraft. The aim of this work is the setup of a corresponding numerical model that is able to capture the flutter characteristics of a scaled aeroelastic model designed to investigate and experimentally validate active flutter suppression technologies. The work described in this paper includes different finite element modeling strategies, the results of the ground vibration test, and finally the strategies adopted for modal updating. The result of the activities is a three-dimensional hybrid finite element model that is well representative of the actual aeroelastic behavior identified during the wind tunnel test campaign and that is capable of predicting the flutter boundary with an error of 1.2%. This model will be used to develop active flutter suppression controllers, as well as to perform the sensitivity analyses necessary to investigate their robustness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroelasticity, Volume III)
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12 pages, 3073 KiB  
Article
Research on Control of Stewart Platform Integrating Small Attitude Maneuver and Vibration Isolation for High-Precision Payloads on Spacecraft
by Weichao Chi, He Ma, Caihua Wang and Tianyu Zhao
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110333 - 07 Nov 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2391
Abstract
The Stewart platform, a classical mechanism proposed as the parallel operation apparatus of robots, is widely used for vibration isolation in various fields. In this paper, a design integrating both small attitude control and vibration isolation for high-precision payloads on board satellites is [...] Read more.
The Stewart platform, a classical mechanism proposed as the parallel operation apparatus of robots, is widely used for vibration isolation in various fields. In this paper, a design integrating both small attitude control and vibration isolation for high-precision payloads on board satellites is proposed. Our design is based on a Stewart platform equipped with voice-coil motors (VCM) to provide control force over the mechanism. The coupling terms in the dynamic equations of the legs are removed as the total disturbance by the linear active disturbance rejection control (LADRC). Attitude maneuver and vibration isolation performance is verified by numerical simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vibration Control for Space Application)
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15 pages, 564 KiB  
Article
Weather Variability Induced Uncertainty of Contrail Radiative Forcing
by Lena Wilhelm, Klaus Gierens and Susanne Rohs
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110332 - 06 Nov 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2407
Abstract
Persistent contrails and contrail cirrus are estimated to have a larger impact on climate than all CO2 emissions from global aviation since the introduction of jet engines. However, the measure for this impact, the effective radiative forcing (ERF) or radiative forcing (RF), [...] Read more.
Persistent contrails and contrail cirrus are estimated to have a larger impact on climate than all CO2 emissions from global aviation since the introduction of jet engines. However, the measure for this impact, the effective radiative forcing (ERF) or radiative forcing (RF), suffers from uncertainties that are much larger than those for CO2. Despite ongoing research, the so called level of scientific understanding has not improved since the 1999 IPCC Special Report on Aviation and the Global Atmosphere. In this paper, the role of weather variability as a major component of the uncertainty range of contrail cirrus RF is examined. Using 10 years of MOZAIC flights and ERA-5 reanalysis data, we show that natural weather variability causes large variations in the instantaneous radiative forcing (iRF) of persistent contrails, which is a major source for uncertainty. Most contrails (about 80%) have a small positive iRF of up to 20 W m−2. IRF exceeds 20 W m−2 in about 10% of all cases but these have a disproportionally large climate impact, the remaining 10% have a negative iRF. The distribution of iRF values is heavily skewed towards large positive values that show an exponential decay. Monte Carlo experiments reveal the difficulty of determining a precise long-term mean from measurement or campaign data alone. Depending on the chosen sample size, calculated means scatter considerably, which is caused exclusively by weather variability. Considering that many additional natural sources of variation have been deliberately neglected in the present examination, the results suggest that there is a fundamental limit to the precision with which the RF and ERF of contrail cirrus can be determined. In our opinion, this does not imply a low level of scientific understanding; rather the scientific understanding of contrails and contrail cirrus has grown considerably over recent decades. Only the determination of global and annual mean RF and ERF values is still difficult and will probably be so for the coming decades, if not forever. The little precise knowledge of the RF and ERF values is, therefore, no argument to postpone actions to mitigate contrail’s warming impact. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Emissions and Climate Impact)
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19 pages, 7142 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Supersonic Fuel Flow Method: An Evolution of the Boeing Fuel Flow Method for Supersonic Aircraft Using Sustainable Aviation Fuels
by Roberta Fusaro, Nicole Viola and Diego Galassini
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110331 - 05 Nov 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3168
Abstract
This paper discloses a new algorithm, called sustainable supersonic fuel flow method, to complement the conceptual design of future supersonic aircraft with pollutant and greenhouse gases emissions estimation. Starting from already existing algorithms currently used to assess the environmental impact of already developed [...] Read more.
This paper discloses a new algorithm, called sustainable supersonic fuel flow method, to complement the conceptual design of future supersonic aircraft with pollutant and greenhouse gases emissions estimation. Starting from already existing algorithms currently used to assess the environmental impact of already developed and operating aircraft, the authors suggest revisions to improve the formulations, thus extending their application. Specifically, this paper has two objectives: to support the design of future supersonic aircraft and to evaluate the impact of the exploitation of more sustainable aviation fuels, with special focus on biofuels and biofuel blends, since the conceptual design stage. The core of the algorithm developed to predict in-flight emissions of a supersonic aircraft has been validated with public data of Concorde flight experiments. In addition, corrective factors accounting for the most recently developed and certified biofuels have been included in the formulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Emissions and Climate Impact)
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27 pages, 8858 KiB  
Article
Blade Roughness Effects on Compressor and Engine Performance—A CFD and Thermodynamic Study
by Jasem Alqallaf and Joao A. Teixeira
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110330 - 04 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3143
Abstract
Degradation of compressors is a common concern for operators of gas turbine engines (GTEs). Surface roughness, due to erosion or fouling, is considered one of the major factors of the degradation phenomenon in compressors that can negatively affect the designed pressure rise, efficiency, [...] Read more.
Degradation of compressors is a common concern for operators of gas turbine engines (GTEs). Surface roughness, due to erosion or fouling, is considered one of the major factors of the degradation phenomenon in compressors that can negatively affect the designed pressure rise, efficiency, and, therefore, the engine aero/thermodynamic performance. The understanding of the aerodynamic implications of varying the blade surface roughness plays a significant role in establishing the magnitude of performance degradation. The present work investigates the implications due to the degradation of the compressor caused by the operation in eroding environments on the gas turbine cycle performance linking, thereby, the compressor aerodynamics with a thermodynamic cycle. At the core of the present study is the numerical assessment of the effect of surface roughness on compressor performance employing the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) tools. The research engine test case employed in the study comprised a fan, bypass, and two stages of the low pressure compressor (booster). Three operating conditions on the 100% speed-line, including the design point, were investigated. Five roughness cases, in addition to the smooth case, with equivalent sand-grain roughness (ks) of 15, 30, 45, 60, and 150 µm were simulated. Turbomatch the Cranfield in-house gas turbine performance simulation software, was employed to model the degraded engine performance. The study showed that the increase in the uniform roughness is associated with sizable drops in efficiency, booster pressure ratio (PR), non-dimensional mass flow (NDMF), and overall engine pressure ratio (EPR) together with rises in turbine entry temperature (TET) and specific fuel consumption (SFC). The performance degradation evaluation employed variables such as isentropic efficiency (ηis), low pressure compressor (LPC) PR, NDMF, TET, SFC, andEPR. The variation in these quantities showed, for the maximum blade surface degradation case, drops of 7.68%, 2.62% and 3.53%, rises of 1.14% and 0.69%, and a drop of 0.86%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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16 pages, 5184 KiB  
Article
Effect of Joint Clearance on Landing Gear Retraction Failure
by Sungjoon Cho, Hwanjeong Cho and Dooyoul Lee
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110329 - 02 Nov 2021
Viewed by 4253
Abstract
A simple method of investigating the effect of joint clearances on landing gear retraction failure is presented and applied to the main landing gear with a single sidestay and a hydraulic actuator. A geometric model is presented with assumptions of each link as [...] Read more.
A simple method of investigating the effect of joint clearances on landing gear retraction failure is presented and applied to the main landing gear with a single sidestay and a hydraulic actuator. A geometric model is presented with assumptions of each link as a rigid body and their relative positions geometrically determined by considering the size of the clearances. We conducted a sensitivity analysis based on a geometric model of the main landing gear. The model was calibrated using the data from the technical order. A Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) was conducted, and whose input was the distance of each clearance based on the experimental design that combined the modified Latin hypercube sampling (LHS) and central composite design (CCD). As a result, we were able to find that the joint had a high potential to operate abnormally. We validated the model by using the actual failure data. Finally, the physical meaning of the sensitivity analysis results was interpreted by comparing them with the values obtained through an amplification index method that is a modified linearization method. Full article
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26 pages, 2013 KiB  
Article
Support Vector Machine Applied to the Optimal Design of Composite Wing Panels
by Rogério Rodrigues dos Santos, Tulio Gomes de Paula Machado and Saullo Giovani Pereira Castro
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110328 - 02 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2011
Abstract
One of the core technologies in lightweight structures is the optimal design of laminated composite stiffened panels. The increasing tailoring potential of new materials added to the simultaneous optimization of various design regions, leading to design spaces that are vast and non-convex. In [...] Read more.
One of the core technologies in lightweight structures is the optimal design of laminated composite stiffened panels. The increasing tailoring potential of new materials added to the simultaneous optimization of various design regions, leading to design spaces that are vast and non-convex. In order to find an optimal design using limited information, this paper proposes a workflow consisting of design of experiments, metamodeling and optimization phases. A machine learning strategy based on support vector machine (SVM) is used for data classification and interpolation. The combination of mass minimization and buckling evaluation under combined load is handled by a multi-objective formulation. The choice of a deterministic algorithm for the optimization cycle accelerates the convergence towards an optimal design. The analysis of the Pareto frontier illustrates the compromise between conflicting objectives. As a result, a balance is found between the exploration of new design regions and the optimal design refinement. Numerical experiments evaluating the design of a representative upper skin wing panel are used to show the viability of the proposed methodology. Full article
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13 pages, 541 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of a Powerplant Life Consumption Rate When Installed in Two Different Aircraft Variants
by Ioannis Templalexis, Ioannis Lionis and Nikolaos Christou
Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110327 - 02 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2137
Abstract
The Hellenic Air Force (HAF) operates both EMB-145 and EMB-135 LR versions of Embraer aircraft, used in surveillance and civil missions respectively. These aircraft are equipped with the same version of Rolls Royce, AE 3007 turbofan engine. This study aims to quantify and [...] Read more.
The Hellenic Air Force (HAF) operates both EMB-145 and EMB-135 LR versions of Embraer aircraft, used in surveillance and civil missions respectively. These aircraft are equipped with the same version of Rolls Royce, AE 3007 turbofan engine. This study aims to quantify and compare the life consumption rate of this engine when installed in each of the two aircraft variants. Two typical missions, one for each variant, were constructed based on mission profile data dictated by the aircraft commanders. For each mission profile segment, corresponding engine data were matched out of the engine recordings archives held by the Hellenic Air Force. The life consumption rate was based on the Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) and creep cumulative detrimental effect on the rotor blades of the 1st High-Pressure Turbine stage. For the LCF, the rainflow method was used to determine the respective loading cycles, whereas the Larson - Miller parameter method was used to determine the consumed life fractions due to creep. The main conclusion of the study was that the engine when installed in the EMB-145 military variant, is much more loaded. Despite the fact absolute life consumption values could hide a great level of uncertainty, the comparative outcomes wherein errors are, to a certain extent, cancelled out, could be used as a rule of thumb when monitoring engine life consumption rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies for Future Distributed Engine Control Systems)
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