Aerospace

6 pages, 187 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Acknowledgment to Reviewers of Aerospace in 2020

by Aerospace Editorial Office

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010023 - 19 Jan 2021

Viewed by 1922

Peer review is the driving force of journal development, and reviewers are gatekeepers who ensure that Aerospace maintains its standards for the high quality of its published papers [...] Full article

30 pages, 13569 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electric Propulsion Methods for Small Satellites: A Review

by Dillon O’Reilly, Georg Herdrich and Darren F. Kavanagh

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010022 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 20749

Abstract

Over 2500 active satellites are in orbit as of October 2020, with an increase of ~1000 smallsats in the past two years. Since 2012, over 1700 smallsats have been launched into orbit. It is projected that by 2025, there will be 1000 smallsats [...] Read more.

Over 2500 active satellites are in orbit as of October 2020, with an increase of ~1000 smallsats in the past two years. Since 2012, over 1700 smallsats have been launched into orbit. It is projected that by 2025, there will be 1000 smallsats launched per year. Currently, these satellites do not have sufficient delta v capabilities for missions beyond Earth orbit. They are confined to their pre-selected orbit and in most cases, they cannot avoid collisions. Propulsion systems on smallsats provide orbital manoeuvring, station keeping, collision avoidance and safer de-orbit strategies. In return, this enables longer duration, higher functionality missions beyond Earth orbit. This article has reviewed electrostatic, electrothermal and electromagnetic propulsion methods based on state of the art research and the current knowledge base. Performance metrics by which these space propulsion systems can be evaluated are presented. The article outlines some of the existing limitations and shortcomings of current electric propulsion thruster systems and technologies. Moreover, the discussion contributes to the discourse by identifying potential research avenues to improve and advance electric propulsion systems for smallsats. The article has placed emphasis on space propulsion systems that are electric and enable interplanetary missions, while alternative approaches to propulsion have also received attention in the text, including light sails and nuclear electric propulsion amongst others. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Propulsion)

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20 pages, 10229 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Characterization of a High-Altitude Balloon during a Flight Campaign for the Detection of ISM Radio Background in the Stratosphere

by Matteo Gemignani and Salvo Marcuccio

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010021 - 17 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8677

Abstract

Sounding balloons, available at very low cost from commercial vendors and operable with minimal training, have an excellent potential as testing platforms in the near-space environment. The work reported here was motivated by the need to perform an experimental assessment of the radio [...] Read more.

Sounding balloons, available at very low cost from commercial vendors and operable with minimal training, have an excellent potential as testing platforms in the near-space environment. The work reported here was motivated by the need to perform an experimental assessment of the radio frequency (RF) background present in the ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) bands, namely 868 MHz (Ultra High Frequency—UHF) and 2.4 GHz (S-Band), simulating the operational environment of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation forInternet of Things (IoT) telecommunications. To this end, five balloons were flown with a dedicated RF payload. Along with the radio measurements, the flights provided a convenient opportunity to collect data on the dynamic behavior of the payload gondola. We report on the system design and the operational phase of the mission, and discuss the data collected throughout the successful flight campaign. As a result, a preliminary understanding of the gondola dynamics has been gained, including both linear accelerations and attitude oscillations. It is also concluded that the two ISM bands considered are actually suitable for IoT ground-to-LEO links. Full article

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21 pages, 1829 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of State-of-the-Art Green Monopropellants: For Propulsion Systems Analysts and Designers

by Ahmed E. S. Nosseir, Angelo Cervone and Angelo Pasini

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010020 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 12859

Abstract

Current research trends have advanced the use of “green propellants” on a wide scale for spacecraft in various space missions; mainly for environmental sustainability and safety concerns. Small satellites, particularly micro and nanosatellites, evolved from passive planetary-orbiting to being able to perform active [...] Read more.

Current research trends have advanced the use of “green propellants” on a wide scale for spacecraft in various space missions; mainly for environmental sustainability and safety concerns. Small satellites, particularly micro and nanosatellites, evolved from passive planetary-orbiting to being able to perform active orbital operations that may require high-thrust impulsive capabilities. Thus, onboard primary and auxiliary propulsion systems capable of performing such orbital operations are required. Novelty in primary propulsion systems design calls for specific attention to miniaturization, which can be achieved, along the above-mentioned orbital transfer capabilities, by utilizing green monopropellants due to their relative high performance together with simplicity, and better storability when compared to gaseous and bi-propellants, especially for miniaturized systems. Owing to the ongoing rapid research activities in the green-propulsion field, it was necessary to extensively study and collect various data of green monopropellants properties and performance that would further assist analysts and designers in the research and development of liquid propulsion systems. This review traces the history and origins of green monopropellants and after intensive study of physicochemical properties of such propellants it was possible to classify green monopropellants to three main classes: Energetic Ionic Liquids (EILs), Liquid NOx Monopropellants, and Hydrogen Peroxide Aqueous Solutions (HPAS). Further, the tabulated data and performance comparisons will provide substantial assistance in using analysis tools—such as: Rocket Propulsion Analysis (RPA) and NASA CEA—for engineers and scientists dealing with chemical propulsion systems analysis and design. Some applications of green monopropellants were discussed through different propulsion systems configurations such as: multi-mode, dual mode, and combined chemical–electric propulsion. Although the in-space demonstrated EILs (i.e., AF-M315E and LMP-103S) are widely proposed and utilized in many space applications, the investigation transpired that NOx fuel blends possess the highest performance, while HPAS yield the lowest performance even compared to hydrazine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Propellants for Space Propulsion)

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16 pages, 31062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Analysis of Flow across Brush Elements Based on a 2-D Staggered Tube Banks Model

by Xiaolei Song, Meihong Liu, Xiangping Hu, Xueliang Wang, Taohong Liao and Junfeng Sun

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010019 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2363

Abstract

In order to improve efficiency in turbomachinery, brush seal replaces labyrinth seals widely in the secondary air system. A 2-d staggered tube bank model is adopted to simulate the gas states and the pressure character in brush seal, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [...] Read more.

In order to improve efficiency in turbomachinery, brush seal replaces labyrinth seals widely in the secondary air system. A 2-d staggered tube bank model is adopted to simulate the gas states and the pressure character in brush seal, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to solve the model in this paper. According to the simulation results, the corrected formula of the Euler number and dimensionless pressure are given. The results show that gas expands when flow through the bristle pack, and the gas expansion closes to an isotherm process. The dynamic pressure increases with decreasing static pressure. The Euler number can reflect the seal performance of brush seals in leakage characteristics. Compared with increasing the number of rows, the reduction of the gap is a higher-efficiency method to increase the Euler number. The Euler number continually increases as the gap decreases. However, with the differential pressure increasing, Euler number first increases and then decreases as the number of rows increases. Finally, the pressure distribution on the surface of end rows is asymmetric, and it may increase the friction between the bristles and the back plate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Secondary Air Systems in Gas Turbine Engines II)

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16 pages, 2283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Pitch Control Using Deep Reinforcement Learning with Discrete Actions in Wind Tunnel Test

by Daichi Wada, Sergio A. Araujo-Estrada and Shane Windsor

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010018 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3021

Abstract

Deep reinforcement learning is a promising method for training a nonlinear attitude controller for fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicles. Until now, proof-of-concept studies have demonstrated successful attitude control in simulation. However, detailed experimental investigations have not yet been conducted. This study applied deep reinforcement [...] Read more.

Deep reinforcement learning is a promising method for training a nonlinear attitude controller for fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicles. Until now, proof-of-concept studies have demonstrated successful attitude control in simulation. However, detailed experimental investigations have not yet been conducted. This study applied deep reinforcement learning for one-degree-of-freedom pitch control in wind tunnel tests with the aim of gaining practical understandings of attitude control application. Three controllers with different discrete action choices, that is, elevator angles, were designed. The controllers with larger action rates exhibited better performance in terms of following angle-of-attack commands. The root mean square errors for tracking angle-of-attack commands decreased from 3.42° to 1.99° as the maximum action rate increased from 10°/s to 50°/s. The comparison between experimental and simulation results showed that the controller with a smaller action rate experienced the friction effect, and the controllers with larger action rates experienced fluctuating behaviors in elevator maneuvers owing to delay. The investigation of the effect of friction and delay on pitch control highlighted the importance of conducting experiments to understand actual control performances, specifically when the controllers were trained with a low-fidelity model. Full article

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15 pages, 1945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Efficacy of Operational Bird Strike Prevention

by Isabel C. Metz, Joost Ellerbroek, Thorsten Mühlhausen, Dirk Kügler, Stefan Kern and Jacco M. Hoekstra

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010017 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4042

Abstract

Involving air traffic controllers and pilots into the bird strike prevention process is considered an essential step to increase aviation and avian safety. Prior to implementing operational measures such as real-time warning systems, it is vital to evaluate their feasibility. This paper studies [...] Read more.

Involving air traffic controllers and pilots into the bird strike prevention process is considered an essential step to increase aviation and avian safety. Prior to implementing operational measures such as real-time warning systems, it is vital to evaluate their feasibility. This paper studies the efficacy of a bird strike advisory system for air traffic control. In addition to the potential safety benefit, the possible impact on airport operations is analyzed. To this end, a previously developed collision avoidance algorithm underlying the system was tested in fast-time Monte Carlo simulations involving various air traffic and bird densities to obtain representative conclusions for different operational conditions. The results demonstrate the strong safety potential of operational bird strike prevention in case of precise bird movement prediction. Unless airports operate close to their capacity limits while bird abundance is high, the induced delays remain tolerable. Prioritization of hazardous strikes involving large individuals as well as flocks of birds are expected to support operational feasibility in all conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)

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65 pages, 10861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proof of Concept Study for Fuselage Boundary Layer Ingesting Propulsion

by Arne Seitz, Anaïs Luisa Habermann, Fabian Peter, Florian Troeltsch, Alejandro Castillo Pardo, Biagio Della Corte, Martijn van Sluis, Zdobyslaw Goraj, Mariusz Kowalski, Xin Zhao, Tomas Grönstedt, Julian Bijewitz and Guido Wortmann

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010016 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 11679

Abstract

Key results from the EU H2020 project CENTRELINE are presented. The research activities undertaken to demonstrate the proof of concept (technology readiness level—TRL 3) for the so-called propulsive fuselage concept (PFC) for fuselage wake-filling propulsion integration are discussed. The technology application case in [...] Read more.

Key results from the EU H2020 project CENTRELINE are presented. The research activities undertaken to demonstrate the proof of concept (technology readiness level—TRL 3) for the so-called propulsive fuselage concept (PFC) for fuselage wake-filling propulsion integration are discussed. The technology application case in the wide-body market segment is motivated. The developed performance bookkeeping scheme for fuselage boundary layer ingestion (BLI) propulsion integration is reviewed. The results of the 2D aerodynamic shape optimization for the bare PFC configuration are presented. Key findings from the high-fidelity aero-numerical simulation and aerodynamic validation testing, i.e., the overall aircraft wind tunnel and the BLI fan rig test campaigns, are discussed. The design results for the architectural concept, systems integration and electric machinery pre-design for the fuselage fan turbo-electric power train are summarized. The design and performance implications on the main power plants are analyzed. Conceptual design solutions for the mechanical and aero-structural integration of the BLI propulsive device are introduced. Key heuristics deduced for PFC conceptual aircraft design are presented. Assessments of fuel burn, NOx emissions, and noise are presented for the PFC aircraft and benchmarked against advanced conventional technology for an entry-into-service in 2035. The PFC design mission fuel benefit based on 2D optimized PFC aero-shaping is 4.7%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space to the Satisfaction of the European Citizens)

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16 pages, 9005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Increased Cabin Recirculation Airflow Fraction on Relative Humidity, CO₂ and TVOC

by Victor Norrefeldt, Florian Mayer, Britta Herbig, Ria Ströhlein, Pawel Wargocki and Fang Lei

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010015 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2880

Abstract

In the CleanSky 2 ComAir study, subject tests were conducted in the Fraunhofer Flight Test Facility cabin mock-up. This mock-up consists of the front section of a former in-service A310 hosting up to 80 passengers. In 12 sessions the outdoor/recirculation airflow ratio was [...] Read more.

In the CleanSky 2 ComAir study, subject tests were conducted in the Fraunhofer Flight Test Facility cabin mock-up. This mock-up consists of the front section of a former in-service A310 hosting up to 80 passengers. In 12 sessions the outdoor/recirculation airflow ratio was altered from today’s typically applied fractions to up to 88% recirculation fraction. This leads to increased relative humidity, carbon dioxide (CO₂) and Total Volatile Organic Compounds (TVOC) levels in the cabin air, as the emissions by passengers become less diluted by outdoor, dry air. This paper describes the measured increase of relative humidity, CO₂ and TVOC level in the cabin air for the different test conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space to the Satisfaction of the European Citizens)

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18 pages, 3775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Impact Mitigation Potential of Formation Flight

by Tobias Marks, Katrin Dahlmann, Volker Grewe, Volker Gollnick, Florian Linke, Sigrun Matthes, Eike Stumpf, Majed Swaid, Simon Unterstrasser, Hiroshi Yamashita and Clemens Zumegen

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010014 - 08 Jan 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3565

Abstract

The aerodynamic formation flight, which is also known as aircraft wake-surfing for efficiency (AWSE), enables aircraft to harvest the energy inherent in another aircraft’s wake vortex. As the thrust of the trailing aircraft can be reduced during cruise flight, the resulting benefit can [...] Read more.

The aerodynamic formation flight, which is also known as aircraft wake-surfing for efficiency (AWSE), enables aircraft to harvest the energy inherent in another aircraft’s wake vortex. As the thrust of the trailing aircraft can be reduced during cruise flight, the resulting benefit can be traded for longer flight time, larger range, less fuel consumption, or cost savings accordingly. Furthermore, as the amount and location of the emissions caused by the formation are subject to change and saturation effects in the cumulated wake of the formation can occur, AWSE can favorably affect the climate impact of the corresponding flights. In order to quantify these effects, we present an interdisciplinary approach combining the fields of aerodynamics, aircraft operations and atmospheric physics. The approach comprises an integrated model chain to assess the climate impact for a given air traffic scenario based on flight plan data, aerodynamic interactions between the formation members, detailed trajectory calculations as well as on an adapted climate model accounting for the saturation effects resulting from the proximity of the emissions of the formation members. Based on this approach, we derived representative AWSE scenarios for the world’s major airports by analyzing and assessing flight plans. The resulting formations were recalculated by a trajectory calculation tool and emission inventories for the scenarios were created. Based on these inventories, we quantitatively estimated the climate impact using the average temperature response (ATR) as climate metric, calculated as an average global near surface temperature change over a time horizon of 50 years. It is shown, that AWSE as a new operational procedure has a significant mitigation potential on climate impact. For a global formation flight scenario, we estimated the average relative change of climate response to range between 22% and 24% while the relative fuel saving effects sum up to 5–6%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 3rd ECATS Conference on Making Aviation Environmentally Sustainable)

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19 pages, 5642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quasi-3D Aerodynamic Analysis Method for Blended-Wing-Body UAV Configurations

by Pericles Panagiotou, Thomas Dimopoulos, Stylianos Dimitriou and Kyros Yakinthos

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010013 - 06 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4262

Abstract

The current study presents a low-fidelity, quasi-3D aerodynamic analysis method for Blended-Wing-Body (BWB) Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) configurations. A tactical BWB UAV experimental prototype is used as a reference platform. The method utilizes 2D panel method analyses and theoretical aerodynamic calculations to rapidly [...] Read more.

The current study presents a low-fidelity, quasi-3D aerodynamic analysis method for Blended-Wing-Body (BWB) Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) configurations. A tactical BWB UAV experimental prototype is used as a reference platform. The method utilizes 2D panel method analyses and theoretical aerodynamic calculations to rapidly compute lift and pitching moment coefficients. The philosophy and the underlying theoretical and semi-empirical equations of the proposed method are extensively described. Corrections related to control surfaces deflection and ground effect are also suggested, so that the BWB pitching stability and trimming calculations can be supported. The method is validated against low-fidelity 3D aerodynamic analysis methods and high-fidelity, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) results for various BWB configurations. The validation procedures show that the proposed method is considerably more accurate than existing low-fidelity ones, can provide predictions for both lift and pitching moment coefficients and requires far less computational resources and time when compared to CFD modeling. Hence, it can serve as a valuable aerodynamics and stability analysis tool for BWB UAV configurations. Full article

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19 pages, 3226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Axial Flow Compressor Stability Enhancement: Circumferential T-Shape Grooves Performance Investigation

by Marco Porro, Richard Jefferson-Loveday and Ernesto Benini

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010012 - 04 Jan 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3626

Abstract

This work focuses its attention on possibilities to enhance the stability of an axial compressor using a casing treatment technique. Circumferential grooves machined into the case are considered and their performances evaluated using three-dimensional steady state computational simulations. The effects of rectangular and [...] Read more.

This work focuses its attention on possibilities to enhance the stability of an axial compressor using a casing treatment technique. Circumferential grooves machined into the case are considered and their performances evaluated using three-dimensional steady state computational simulations. The effects of rectangular and new T-shape grooves on NASA Rotor 37 performances are investigated, resolving in detail the flow field near the blade tip in order to understand the stall inception delay mechanism produced by the casing treatment. First, a validation of the computational model was carried out analysing a smooth wall case without grooves. The comparisons of the total pressure ratio, total temperature ratio and adiabatic efficiency profiles with experimental data highlighted the accuracy and validity of the model. Then, the results for a rectangular groove chosen as the baseline case demonstrated that the groove interacts with the tip leakage flow, weakening the vortex breakdown and reducing the separation at the blade suction side. These effects delay stall inception, improving compressor stability. New T-shape grooves were designed keeping the volume as a constant parameter and their performances were evaluated in terms of stall margin improvement and efficiency variation. All the configurations showed a common efficiency loss near the peak condition and some of them revealed a stall margin improvement with respect to the baseline. Due to their reduced depth, these new configurations are interesting because they enable the use of a thinner light-weight compressor case as is desirable in aerospace applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Jet Engine Technology II)

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19 pages, 4702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Emission Species in an Aero-Engine Turbine Stator

by André A. V. Perpignan, Stella Grazia Tomasello and Arvind Gangoli Rao

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010011 - 04 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2970

Abstract

Future energy and transport scenarios will still rely on gas turbines for energy conversion and propulsion. Gas turbines will play a major role in energy transition and therefore gas turbine performance should be improved, and their pollutant emissions decreased. Consequently, designers must have [...] Read more.

Future energy and transport scenarios will still rely on gas turbines for energy conversion and propulsion. Gas turbines will play a major role in energy transition and therefore gas turbine performance should be improved, and their pollutant emissions decreased. Consequently, designers must have accurate performance and emission prediction tools. Usually, pollutant emission prediction is limited to the combustion chamber as the composition at its outlet is considered to be “chemically frozen”. However, this assumption is not necessarily valid, especially with the increasing turbine inlet temperatures and operating pressures that benefit engine performance. In this work, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Chemical Reactor Network (CRN) simulations were performed to analyse the progress of NO_x and CO species through the high-pressure turbine stator. Simulations considering turbulence-chemistry interaction were performed and compared with the finite-rate chemistry approach. The results show that progression of some relevant reactions continues to take place within the turbine stator. For an estimated cruise condition, both NO and CO concentrations are predicted to increase along the stator, while for the take-off condition, NO increases and CO decreases within the stator vanes. Reaction rates and concentrations are correlated with the flow structure for the cruise condition, especially in the near-wall flow field and the blade wakes. However, at the higher operating pressure and temperature encountered during take-off, reactions seem to be dependent on the residence time rather than on the flow structures. The inclusion of turbulence-chemistry interaction significantly changes the results, while heat transfer on the blade walls is shown to have minor effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Jet Engine Technology II)

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28 pages, 1160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel 3U Stand-Alone CubeSat Architecture for Autonomous Near Earth Asteroid Fly-By

by Stefano Casini, Iosto Fodde, Bert Monna, Angelo Cervone and Eberhard Gill

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010009 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4563

Abstract

The purpose of this work is to present a novel CubeSat architecture, aimed to explore Near Earth Asteroids. The fast growth in small satellite commercial-off-the-shelf technologies, which characterized the last decade of space industry, is exploited to design a 3U CubeSat able to [...] Read more.

The purpose of this work is to present a novel CubeSat architecture, aimed to explore Near Earth Asteroids. The fast growth in small satellite commercial-off-the-shelf technologies, which characterized the last decade of space industry, is exploited to design a 3U CubeSat able to provide a basic scientific return sufficient to improve the target asteroid dataset. An overview of the current available technologies for each subsystem is presented, followed by a component selection driven by the mission constraints. First a typical asteroid fly-by mission is introduced together with the system and performance requirements. Then each characterizing subsystem is critically analyzed, and the proposed configuration is presented, showing the mission feasibility within only 3.9 kg of wet mass and 385 m/s of total

Δ V

. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Small Satellite Technologies and Mission Concepts)

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1 pages, 177 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Tanaka, T., et al. Dual-Satellite Lunar Global Navigation System Using Multi-Epoch Double-Differenced Pseudorange Observations. Aerospace 2020, 7, 122

by Toshiki Tanaka, Takuji Ebinuma and Shinichi Nakasuka

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010008 - 30 Dec 2020

Viewed by 2119

Abstract

The authors regret that this paper [1] contains typographical errors in the sentence between Equation (16) and Equation (17), as well as in Equations (18), (20), (21), (34), (36) and (37), with respect to the point that they use the wrong notations [...] Read more.

The authors regret that this paper [1] contains typographical errors in the sentence between Equation (16) and Equation (17), as well as in Equations (18), (20), (21), (34), (36) and (37), with respect to the point that they use the wrong notations

t_{1}

−

t_{N}

, while the correct notations are

t_{k}

−

t_{k + N - 1}

[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Space Mission Analysis and Design for Space Sciences, Earth Observation, Global Change, Space Weather)

31 pages, 3466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amphibious Aircraft Developments: Computational Studies of Hydrofoil Design for Improvements in Water-Takeoffs

by Arjit Seth and Rhea P. Liem

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010010 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5055

Abstract

Amphibious aircraft designers face challenges to improve takeoffs and landings on both water and land, with water-takeoffs being relatively more complex for analyses. Reducing the water-takeoff distance via the use of hydrofoils was a subject of interest in the 1970s, but the computational [...] Read more.

Amphibious aircraft designers face challenges to improve takeoffs and landings on both water and land, with water-takeoffs being relatively more complex for analyses. Reducing the water-takeoff distance via the use of hydrofoils was a subject of interest in the 1970s, but the computational power to assess their designs was limited. A preliminary computational design framework is developed to assess the performance and effectiveness of hydrofoils for amphibious aircraft applications, focusing on the water-takeoff performance. The design framework includes configuration selections and sizing methods for hydrofoils to fit within constraints from a flying-boat amphibious aircraft conceptual design for general aviation. The position, span, and incidence angle of the hydrofoil are optimized for minimum water-takeoff distance with consideration for the longitudinal stability of the aircraft. The analyses and optimizations are performed using water-takeoff simulations, which incorporate lift and drag forces with cavitation effects on the hydrofoil. Surrogate models are derived based on 2D computational fluid dynamics simulation results to approximate the force coefficients within the design space. The design procedure is evaluated in a case study involving a 10-seater amphibious aircraft, with results indicating that the addition of the hydrofoil achieves the purpose of reducing water-takeoff distance by reducing the hull resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Design (SI-2/2020))

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25 pages, 15327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulations on Unsteady Nonlinear Transonic Airfoil Flow

by Diliana Friedewald

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010007 - 29 Dec 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2873

Abstract

Large-amplitude excitations need to be considered for gust load analyses of transport aircraft in cruise flight conditions. Nonlinear amplitude effects in transonic flow are, however, only marginally taken into account. The present work aims at closing this gap by means of systematic unsteady [...] Read more.

Large-amplitude excitations need to be considered for gust load analyses of transport aircraft in cruise flight conditions. Nonlinear amplitude effects in transonic flow are, however, only marginally taken into account. The present work aims at closing this gap by means of systematic unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes simulations. The RAE2822 airfoil is analyzed for a variety of sinusoidal gust excitations at different transonic Mach numbers. Responses are evaluated with respect to lift and moment coefficients, their derivatives and the unsteady shock motion. A strong dependency on inflow Mach number and excitation frequency is observed. Generally, amplitude effects decrease with lower Mach numbers or higher excitation frequencies. The unsteady nonlinear simulations predict lower maximum lift values and lower lift and moment derivatives compared to their linear counterparts for lower frequencies in combination with large-amplitude excitations. For the mid-frequency range, trends are not as clear. Additionally, it is shown that the variables of harmonic distortion and maximum shock motion might not be reasonable indicators to predict a nonlinear response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modelling of Aircraft Unsteady and Nonlinear Aerodynamics)

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20 pages, 1948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Target Tracking Enhancement by Three-Dimensional Cooperative Guidance Law Imposing Relative Interception Geometry

by Xiaoma Liu, Yang Han, Peng Li, Hongwu Guo and Wenqi Wu

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010006 - 28 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3318

Abstract

The problem that two cooperative missiles intercept a maneuvering target while imposing a desired relative geometry is investigated in the paper. Firstly, a three-dimensional (3D) estimation model for cooperative target tracking is proposed and the observability of the missile-target range measurement is analyzed. [...] Read more.

The problem that two cooperative missiles intercept a maneuvering target while imposing a desired relative geometry is investigated in the paper. Firstly, a three-dimensional (3D) estimation model for cooperative target tracking is proposed and the observability of the missile-target range measurement is analyzed. In order to enhance the estimation performance, a two-level cooperative interception guidance architecture is proposed which combines a coordination algorithm with a novel 3D fixed-time convergent guidance law considering line of sight (LOS) angle constraints, such that the desired relative geometry can be imposed quickly and steadily by a dynamic strategy. The effectiveness and superiority of the proposed guidance law is evidenced through the numerical simulations comparing with other guidance laws. Full article

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12 pages, 3273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Conceptional Approach of Resin-Transfer-Molding to Rosin-Sourced Epoxy Matrix Green Composites

by Sicong Yu, Xufeng Zhang, Xiaoling Liu, Chris Rudd and Xiaosu Yi

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010005 - 28 Dec 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3142

Abstract

In this concept-proof study, a preform-based RTM (Resin Transfer Molding) process is presented that is characterized by first pre-loading the solid curing agent onto the preform, and then injecting the liquid nonreactive resin with an intrinsically low viscosity into the mold to infiltrate [...] Read more.

In this concept-proof study, a preform-based RTM (Resin Transfer Molding) process is presented that is characterized by first pre-loading the solid curing agent onto the preform, and then injecting the liquid nonreactive resin with an intrinsically low viscosity into the mold to infiltrate and wet the pre-loaded preform. The separation of resin and hardener helped to process inherently high viscosity resins in a convenient way. Rosin-sourced, anhydrite-cured epoxies that would normally be regarded as unsuited to liquid composite molding, were thus processed. Rheological tests revealed that by separating the anhydrite curing agent from a formulated RTM resin system, the remaining epoxy liquid had its flowtime extended. C-scan and glass transition temperature tests showed that the preform pre-loaded with anhydrite was fully infiltrated and wetted by the liquid epoxy, and the two components were diffused and dissolved with each other, and finally, well reacted and cured. Composite laminates made via this approach exhibited roughly comparable quality and mechanical properties with prepreg controls via autoclave or compression molding, respectively. These findings were verified for both carbon and ramie fiber composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Aerospace Sciences and Technology)

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18 pages, 7998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LEO Object’s Light-Curve Acquisition System and Their Inversion for Attitude Reconstruction

by Fabrizio Piergentili, Gaetano Zarcone, Leonardo Parisi, Lorenzo Mariani, Shariar Hadji Hossein and Fabio Santoni

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010004 - 23 Dec 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2861

Abstract

In recent years, the increase in space activities has brought the space debris issue to the top of the list of all space agencies. The fact of there being uncontrolled objects is a problem both for the operational satellites in orbit (avoiding collisions) [...] Read more.

In recent years, the increase in space activities has brought the space debris issue to the top of the list of all space agencies. The fact of there being uncontrolled objects is a problem both for the operational satellites in orbit (avoiding collisions) and for the safety of people on the ground (re-entry objects). Optical systems provide valuable assistance in identifying and monitoring such objects. The Sapienza Space System and Space Surveillance (S5Lab) has been working in this field for years, being able to take advantage of a network of telescopes spread over different continents. This article is focused on the re-entry phase of the object; indeed, the knowledge of the state of the object, in terms of position, velocity, and attitude during the descent, is crucial in order to predict as accurately as possible the impact point on the ground. A procedure to retrieve the light curves of orbiting objects by means of optical data will be shown and a method to obtain the attitude determination from their inversion based on a stochastic optimization (genetic algorithm) will be proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Orbit Determination of Earth Orbiting Objects)

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22 pages, 774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Optimization of Ram Air–Based Thermal Management Systems for Hybrid-Electric Aircraft

by Hagen Kellermann, Michael Lüdemann, Markus Pohl and Mirko Hornung

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010003 - 23 Dec 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 7226

Abstract

Ram air–based thermal management systems (TMS) are investigated herein for the cooling of future hybrid-electric aircraft. The developed TMS model consists of all components required to estimate the impacts of mass, drag, and fuel burn on the aircraft, including heat exchangers, coldplates, ducts, [...] Read more.

Ram air–based thermal management systems (TMS) are investigated herein for the cooling of future hybrid-electric aircraft. The developed TMS model consists of all components required to estimate the impacts of mass, drag, and fuel burn on the aircraft, including heat exchangers, coldplates, ducts, pumps, and fans. To gain a better understanding of the TMS, one- and multi-dimensional system sensitivity analyses were conducted. The observations were used to aid with the numerical optimization of a ram air–based TMS towards the minimum fuel burn of a 180-passenger short-range partial-turboelectric aircraft with a power split of up to 30% electric power. The TMS was designed for the conditions at the top of the climb. For an aircraft with the maximum power split, the additional fuel burn caused by the TMS is 0.19%. Conditions occurring at a hot-day takeoff represent the most challenging off-design conditions for TMS. Steady-state cooling of all electric components with the designed TMS is possible during a hot-day takeoff if a small puller fan is utilized. Omitting the puller fan and instead oversizing the TMS is an alternative, but the fuel burn increase on aircraft level grows to 0.29%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space to the Satisfaction of the European Citizens)

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20 pages, 8978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Modeling of a Long-Range Aircraft under Consideration of Engine-Wing Integration

by Matthias Schulze, Jens Neumann and Thomas Klimmek

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010002 - 23 Dec 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5363

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the influence of the engine position and mass as well as the pylon stiffness on the aeroelastic stability of a long-range wide-body transport aircraft. As reference configuration, DLR’s (German Aerospace Center/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und [...] Read more.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the influence of the engine position and mass as well as the pylon stiffness on the aeroelastic stability of a long-range wide-body transport aircraft. As reference configuration, DLR’s (German Aerospace Center/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt) generic aircraft configuration DLR-D250 is taken. The structural, mass, loads, and optimization models for the reference and a modified configuration with different engine and pylon parameters are set up using DLR’s automatized aeroelastic design process cpacs-MONA. At first, the cpacs-MONA process with its capabilities for parametric modeling of the complete aircraft and in particular the set-up of a generic elastic pylon model is unfolded. Then, the influence of the modified engine-wing parameters on the flight loads of the main wing is examined. The resulting loads are afterward used to structurally optimize the two configurations component wise. Finally, the results of post-cpacs-MONA flutter analyses performed for the two optimized aircraft configurations with the different engine and pylon characteristics are discussed. It is shown that the higher mass and the changed position of the engine slightly increased the flutter speed. Although the lowest flutter speeds for both configurations occur at a flutter phenomenon of the horizontal tail-plane outside of the aeroelastic stability envelope. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroelasticity, Volume II)

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16 pages, 3155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advanced Materials and Technologies for Compressor Blades of Small Turbofan Engines

by Dmytro Pavlenko, Yaroslav Dvirnyk and Radoslaw Przysowa

Aerospace 2021, 8(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8010001 - 22 Dec 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5377

Abstract

Manufacturing costs, along with operational performance, are among the major factors determining the selection of the propulsion system for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), especially for aerial targets and cruise missiles. In this paper, the design requirements and operating parameters of small turbofan engines [...] Read more.

Manufacturing costs, along with operational performance, are among the major factors determining the selection of the propulsion system for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), especially for aerial targets and cruise missiles. In this paper, the design requirements and operating parameters of small turbofan engines for single-use and reusable UAVs are analysed to introduce alternative materials and technologies for manufacturing their compressor blades, such as sintered titanium, a new generation of aluminium alloys and titanium aluminides. To assess the influence of severe plastic deformation (SPD) on the hardening efficiency of the proposed materials, the alloys with the coarse-grained and submicrocrystalline structure were studied. Changes in the physical and mechanical properties of materials were taken into account. The thermodynamic analysis of the compressor was performed in a finite element analysis system (ANSYS) to determine the impact of gas pressure and temperature on the aerodynamic surfaces of compressor blades of all stages. Based on thermal and structural analysis, the stress and temperature maps on compressor blades and vanes were obtained, taking into account the physical and mechanical properties of advanced materials and technologies of their processing. The safety factors of the components were established based on the assessment of their stress-strength characteristics. Thanks to nomograms, the possibility of using the new materials in five compressor stages was confirmed in view of the permissible operating temperature and safety factor. The proposed alternative materials for compressor blades and vanes meet the design requirements of the turbofan at lower manufacturing costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space to the Satisfaction of the European Citizens)

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Aerospace, Volume 8, Issue 1 (January 2021) – 23 articles

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