Modulatory Effect of Gut Microbiota on the Gut-Brain, Gut-Bone Axes, and the Impact of Cannabinoids
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Gut Microbiota
1.2. Bacteria Inhabiting the Stomach
1.3. Bacteria Inhabiting the Ileum
1.4. Bacteria Inhabiting the Colon
2. Microbiome and Human Body Function
2.1. Microbial Components and Their Effect on Host Physiology
2.2. Food Intake and the Gut-Brain Axis
3. Physiology of Homeostatic Regulation of Food Consumption
4. Non-Homeostatic Regulation of Food Consumption
5. Sympathetic Routes
6. Nervous Routes
The Gut Microbiota a Major Player in Nervous Systems
7. Enteric Nervous System and the Microbiota’s Molecular Patterns and Signatures
8. Significance of Gut Bone Axis and Bone Metabolism
9. Promising Health Benefits of Probiotics on Bone
10. Underlying Mechanisms of Bone Metabolism by Gut Microbiota
10.1. Gut Microbiome and Its Potential Role in the Mineral Uptake of the Bone
10.2. Crucial Role of Gut Microbiome in Preventing Bone Loss—Bone Metabolism and Immune System
10.3. Effects of Calcium-Regulating Hormones
10.4. Postmenopausal Osteoporosis and Gut Microbiome-Targeted Treatment Strategies
10.5. Estrogen as Critical Factor of the Gut’s Microenvironment
11. Gut Bone Axis and Cannabinoid
12. Cannabidiol (CBD)
13. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Bacterium | Unique Characteristics | Incidence in the Colon | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Escherichia coli | Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium | 100 | [53] |
Bacteroides fragilis | Anaerobic, Gram-negative, pleomorphic to rod-shaped bacterium | 100 | [54] |
Prevotella melaninogenica | Anaerobic, Gram-negative rod, with black colonies, and black pigment, not motile, non-spore forming, grows well on blood agar. | 100 | [55] |
Klebsiella sp. | 40–80 | [56] | |
Enterobacter sp. | Rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium, facultative anaerobic, possesses peritrichous flagella, oxidase-negative, catalase-positive | 40–80 | [57] |
Bifidobacterium bifidum | Gram-positive, anaerobic, non-motile, non- spore-forming, rod-shaped, usually in clusters, pairs, or singly. | 30–70 | [58] |
Staphylococcus aureus | Gram-positive, catalase positive, nitrate positive, facultative anaerobe, spherically shaped bacterium | 30–50 | [59] |
Lactobacillus | Gram-positive, aerotolerant anaerobes or microaerophilic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria. | 20–60 | [60] |
Clostridium perfringens | Gram-positive, rod-shaped, anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium | 25–35 | [61] |
Proteus mirabilis | Gram negative facultative anaerobic, rod shaped, and peritrichous flagella bacterium | 5–55 | [62] |
Clostridium tetani | Rod-shaped, Gram-positive, flagellated, spore forming bacterium | 1–35 | [63] |
Clostridium septicum | Gram-positive, spore forming, obligate anaerobic bacterium | 5–25 | [64] |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Encapsulated, Gram-negative, aerobic-facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. | 3–11 | [65] |
Salmonella enterica | Rod-headed, flagellate, facultative anaerobic, Gram negative | 3–7 | [66] |
Gut Microbe | Effect on Bone or Brain | References |
---|---|---|
Lactobacillus reuteri |
| [163,179,180] |
Bifidobacterium longum |
| [165,181,182,183,184] |
Lactobacillus rhamnosus |
| [166,185] |
Lactobacillus plantarum&Lactobacillus paracasei |
| [27,186,187,188] |
Lactobacillus johnsonii |
| [189,190] |
Streptococcus thermophilus |
| [191] |
L. fermentum |
| [192] |
Lactobacillus casei |
| [6,193] |
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Ibrahim, I.; Syamala, S.; Ayariga, J.A.; Xu, J.; Robertson, B.K.; Meenakshisundaram, S.; Ajayi, O.S. Modulatory Effect of Gut Microbiota on the Gut-Brain, Gut-Bone Axes, and the Impact of Cannabinoids. Metabolites 2022, 12, 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12121247
Ibrahim I, Syamala S, Ayariga JA, Xu J, Robertson BK, Meenakshisundaram S, Ajayi OS. Modulatory Effect of Gut Microbiota on the Gut-Brain, Gut-Bone Axes, and the Impact of Cannabinoids. Metabolites. 2022; 12(12):1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12121247
Chicago/Turabian StyleIbrahim, Iddrisu, Soumyakrishnan Syamala, Joseph Atia Ayariga, Junhuan Xu, Boakai K. Robertson, Sreepriya Meenakshisundaram, and Olufemi S. Ajayi. 2022. "Modulatory Effect of Gut Microbiota on the Gut-Brain, Gut-Bone Axes, and the Impact of Cannabinoids" Metabolites 12, no. 12: 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12121247