Journal of Intelligence

18 pages, 968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial–Numerical Magnitude Estimation Mediates Early Sex Differences in the Use of Advanced Arithmetic Strategies

by Marina Vasilyeva, Elida V. Laski, Beth M. Casey, Linxi Lu, Muanjing Wang and Hyun Young Cho

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050097 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1362

An accumulating body of literature points to a link between spatial reasoning and mathematics learning. The present study contributes to this line of research by investigating sex differences both in spatial representations of magnitude and in the use of arithmetic strategies, as well [...] Read more.

An accumulating body of literature points to a link between spatial reasoning and mathematics learning. The present study contributes to this line of research by investigating sex differences both in spatial representations of magnitude and in the use of arithmetic strategies, as well as the relation between the two. To test the hypothesis that sex differences in spatial–numerical magnitude knowledge mediate sex differences in the use of advanced strategies (retrieval and decomposition), two studies were conducted. Study 1 included 96 US first graders (53% girls); Study 2 included 210 Russian first graders (49% girls). All participants completed a number line estimation task (a spatially based measure of numerical magnitude knowledge) and an arithmetic strategy task (a measure of strategy choice). The studies showed parallel results: boys produced more accurate numerical magnitude estimates on the number line estimation task and used advanced strategies more frequently on the arithmetic task. Critically, both studies provide support for the mediation hypothesis (although there were some differences in the pattern obtained for the two strategies). The results are discussed in the context of broader research about the relation between spatial and mathematical skills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implicit Processing of Numerical Order: Evidence from a Continuous Interocular Flash Suppression Study

by Dana Sury and Orly Rubinsten

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050096 - 16 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1109

Abstract

Processing the ordered relationships between sequential items is a key element in many cognitive abilities that are important for survival. Specifically, order may play a crucial role in numerical processing. Here, we assessed the existence of a cognitive system designed to implicitly evaluate [...] Read more.

Processing the ordered relationships between sequential items is a key element in many cognitive abilities that are important for survival. Specifically, order may play a crucial role in numerical processing. Here, we assessed the existence of a cognitive system designed to implicitly evaluate numerical order, by combining continuous flash suppression with a priming method in a numerical enumeration task. In two experiments and diverse statistical analysis, targets that required numerical enumeration were preceded by an invisibly ordered or non-ordered numerical prime sequence. The results of both experiments showed that enumeration for targets that appeared after an ordered prime was significantly faster, while the ratio of the prime sequences produced no significant effect. The findings suggest that numerical order is processed implicitly and affects a basic cognitive ability: enumeration of quantities. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 286 KiB

Open AccessOpinion

Intelligence, Personality, and the Prediction of Life Outcomes: Borghans et al. (2016) vs. Zisman and Ganzach (2022) Debate

by Lazar Stankov

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050095 - 15 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1483

Abstract

This article examines the psychological measures employed in studies that compared the predictive validity of personality and intelligence for important life outcomes and came to divergent conclusions. At least some discrepant findings can be accounted for by the fine-grained analysis of measures employed [...] Read more.

This article examines the psychological measures employed in studies that compared the predictive validity of personality and intelligence for important life outcomes and came to divergent conclusions. At least some discrepant findings can be accounted for by the fine-grained analysis of measures employed in the assessment of intelligence and personality. The use of Big Five measures of personality traits for predicting life outcomes appear to be poorly supported—other ways of assessing personality need to be explored. Methods used to study cause–effect relationships in non-experimental studies will need to be employed in future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Personality, Intelligence, Cognitive Skills, and Life Outcomes)

16 pages, 1131 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Working Memory Constrains Long-Term Memory in Children and Adults: Memory of Objects and Bindings

by Alicia Forsberg, Dominic Guitard, Eryn J. Adams, Duangporn Pattanakul and Nelson Cowan

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050094 - 15 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2340

Abstract

We explored how individual and age-related differences in working memory (WM) capacity affected subsequent long-term memory (LTM) retrieval. Unlike past studies, we tested WM and LTM not only for items, but also for item–color bindings. Our sample included 82 elementary school children and [...] Read more.

We explored how individual and age-related differences in working memory (WM) capacity affected subsequent long-term memory (LTM) retrieval. Unlike past studies, we tested WM and LTM not only for items, but also for item–color bindings. Our sample included 82 elementary school children and 42 young adults. The participants performed a WM task with images of unique everyday items presented sequentially at varying set sizes in different colors. Later, we tested LTM for items and item–color bindings from the WM task. The WM load during encoding constrained LTM, and participants with a higher WM capacity retrieved more items in the LTM test. Even when accounting for young children’s poor item memory by considering only the items that they did remember, they exhibited an exacerbated difficulty with remembering item–color bindings in WM. Their LTM binding performance, however, as a proportion of remembered objects, was comparable to that of older children and adults. The WM binding performance was better during sub-span encoding loads, but with no clear transfer of this benefit to LTM. Overall, LTM item memory performance was constrained by individual and age-related WM limitations, but with mixed consequences for binding. We discuss the theoretical, practical, and developmental implications of this WM-to-LTM bottleneck. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Working Memory and Attention)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Professional Development among Secondary Teachers in Spain: Key Associated Factors as of PISA 2018

by Juan Pablo Hernández-Ramos and Fernando Martínez-Abad

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050093 - 14 May 2023

Viewed by 1158

Abstract

Professional development for teachers is fundamental in the configuration and functioning of smart schools. This paper aims to characterize professional development with the participation of compulsory secondary teachers in Spain and to detect key factors in the functioning and organization of schools associated [...] Read more.

Professional development for teachers is fundamental in the configuration and functioning of smart schools. This paper aims to characterize professional development with the participation of compulsory secondary teachers in Spain and to detect key factors in the functioning and organization of schools associated with higher levels of ongoing teacher training. A cross-cutting non-experimental design was used to conduct a secondary analysis of data from PISA 2018 tests, including over 20,000 teachers and more than 1000 schools in Spain. Descriptive results show great variability in teachers’ commitment to their professional development; this variability is not associated with the grouping of teachers by school. The decision tree model completed with data mining tools shows that intensive professional teacher development in schools is associated with a better school climate and higher levels of innovation, cooperation, taking on shared goals and responsibilities, and leadership distributed among the education community. The conclusions highlight the importance of ongoing teacher training and how this improves educational quality in schools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Professional Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leader’s Possession of Linguistic Intelligence in Relation to Leader–Member Exchange Theory

by Timotej Ribič and Miha Marič

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050092 - 12 May 2023

Viewed by 1356

Abstract

When practicing high-quality leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, the leader’s ability to communicate, build and maintain relationships is a vital part. Because leader–member exchange theory is a relationship-based approach to leadership that primarily includes social exchange and communication on a daily basis, we can [...] Read more.

When practicing high-quality leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, the leader’s ability to communicate, build and maintain relationships is a vital part. Because leader–member exchange theory is a relationship-based approach to leadership that primarily includes social exchange and communication on a daily basis, we can highlight linguistic intelligence as a key leadership skill that is part of the multiple intelligences defined by Howard Gardner. The goal of this article was to conduct research into organizations where the leader applies LMX theory and examine whether the leader’s linguistic intelligence is positively related to the quality of the leader–member exchange. The dependent variable was the quality of the LMX. We were able to recruit 39 employees and 13 leaders. Correlations and multiple regressions were used to analyze our statement. The overall results are statistically significant and we conclude that there is a high positive correlation between LMX and linguistic intelligence in the organizations that were part of this study. A limitation of this study is the use of purposive sampling, which resulted in a relatively small sample size and may limit the generalization of the results to other populations. Full article

19 pages, 2342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Training People to Think in Opposites Facilitates the Falsification Process in Wason’s Rule Discovery Task

by Erika Branchini, Roberto Burro and Ivana Bianchi

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050091 - 11 May 2023

Viewed by 1658

Abstract

With reference to Wason’s 2-4-6 rule discovery task, this study investigated the effects of a simple training session that prompted participants to “think in opposites”. The results showed a significant improvement in performance under the training condition when compared to the control condition, [...] Read more.

With reference to Wason’s 2-4-6 rule discovery task, this study investigated the effects of a simple training session that prompted participants to “think in opposites”. The results showed a significant improvement in performance under the training condition when compared to the control condition, both in terms of the proportion of participants who discovered the correct rule and how quickly it was discovered. An analysis of whether or not participant submitted test triples formed of descending numbers showed that fewer participants under the control condition considered ascending/descending to represent a critical dimension and, in any case, this occurred later (that is, after more test triples) than in the training condition. These results are discussed in relation to previous literature showing improvements in performance that were prompted by strategies involving “contrast” as a critical factor. The limitations of the study are discussed, as well as the benefits of a training program like this, which is non-content related. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 820 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Structure of Cognitive Abilities and Associations with Problem Behaviors in Early Adolescence: An Analysis of Baseline Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study

by Dawn Michele Moore and Andrew R. A. Conway

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050090 - 10 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2440

Abstract

Using baseline data (n = 9875) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study examining children aged 9 to 10 years, the current analyses included: (1) exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of neurocognitive measures administered during baseline collection, [...] Read more.

Using baseline data (n = 9875) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study examining children aged 9 to 10 years, the current analyses included: (1) exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of neurocognitive measures administered during baseline collection, and (2) linear regression analyses on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors. The neurocognitive tasks measured episodic memory, executive function (EF; attention), language skills, processing speed, working memory, visuospatial ability, and reasoning. The CBCL included composite scores of parent-reported internalizing, externalizing, and stress-related behavior problems. The study reported here serves as an extension of prior research using a principal components analysis (PCA) of the ABCD baseline data. We propose an alternative solution using factor analysis. Analyses revealed a three-factor structure: verbal ability (VA), executive function/processing speed (EF/PS), and working memory/episodic memory (WM/EM). These factors were significantly correlated with the CBCL scores, albeit with small effect sizes. These findings provide a novel three-factor solution to the structure of cognitive abilities measured in the ABCD Study, offering new insights into the association between cognitive function and problem behaviors in early adolescence. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Speededness of a Reasoning Test and the Complexity of Mental Speed Tasks Influence the Relation between Mental Speed and Reasoning Ability

by Natalie Borter, Katja Schlegel and Stefan J. Troche

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050089 - 08 May 2023

Viewed by 1729

Abstract

Although previous research has consistently reported a positive association between mental speed and reasoning ability, it remains unclear whether the magnitude of this association depends on whether the reasoning test is administered with or without a time limit. In addition, it is unknown [...] Read more.

Although previous research has consistently reported a positive association between mental speed and reasoning ability, it remains unclear whether the magnitude of this association depends on whether the reasoning test is administered with or without a time limit. In addition, it is unknown how mental speed task complexity affects the mental speed–reasoning association when the effects of time limitations in the reasoning test (labeled “speededness”) are controlled for. The present study examined these questions in a sample of 200 participants who completed the time-limited Culture Fair Test (CFT) and a Hick task with three levels of complexity to measure mental speed. Results showed that the latent correlation between mental speed and reasoning was slightly lower when the effect of speededness in reasoning was statistically controlled for. However, for both controlled and uncontrolled reasoning, the correlation with mental speed was of medium size and statistically significant. When reasoning was controlled for the effects of speededness, only complexity-related mental speed aspects were correlated with reasoning, whereas basic mental speed aspects were correlated with the speededness factor and unrelated to reasoning. These findings demonstrate that time limitations in reasoning tests and complexity in mental speed tasks affect the magnitude of the mental speed–reasoning association. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time Use and Cognitive Achievement among Adolescents in China: Depression Symptoms as Mediators

by Xiaojie Cao and Xinqiao Liu

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050088 - 06 May 2023

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2705

Abstract

Everyone’s time is limited, and there is competition between different aspects of time use; this requires comprehensive consideration of the effects of different aspects of time use on cognitive achievement in adolescents. This study uses a dataset of 11,717 students from a nationally [...] Read more.

Everyone’s time is limited, and there is competition between different aspects of time use; this requires comprehensive consideration of the effects of different aspects of time use on cognitive achievement in adolescents. This study uses a dataset of 11,717 students from a nationally representative large-scale survey project conducted in 2013 to 2014 to clarify the relationship between time use (including working on homework, playing sports, surfing the Internet, watching TV, and sleeping) and cognitive achievement among Chinese adolescents, and explores the mediating role of depression symptoms in the relationship between time use and cognitive achievement. The results of the correlation analysis show that the average daily time spent on homework, playing sports, and sleeping is significantly positively correlated with cognitive achievement (p < 0.01), while time spent surfing the Internet and watching TV are significantly negatively correlated with cognitive achievement (p < 0.01). The results of the mediating effect model show that depression symptoms play a mediating role in the relationship between time use and cognitive achievement among Chinese adolescents. Specifically, time spent playing sports (indirect effect = 0.008, p < 0.001) and sleeping (indirect effect = 0.015, p < 0.001) have a positive effect on cognitive achievement when using depression symptoms as mediators; time spent on homework (indirect effect = −0.004, p < 0.001), surfing the Internet (indirect effect = −0.002, p = 0.046), and watching TV (indirect effect = −0.005, p < 0.001) have a negative effect on cognitive achievement when using depression symptoms as mediators. This study contributes to the understanding of the relationship between time use and cognitive achievement among Chinese adolescents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Personality, Intelligence, Cognitive Skills, and Life Outcomes)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1618 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Achievement in Fundamental Movement Skills, Spatial Abilities, and Mathematics among Lower Key Stage 2 Children

by Jessica Scott, Tim Jay and Christopher Spray

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050087 - 04 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1793

Abstract

Research has demonstrated links between sport and mathematics learning, and their relationship with spatial abilities in children. This study explored the association between the development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) and mathematics achievement, and whether the understanding of specific spatial concepts mediated these [...] Read more.

Research has demonstrated links between sport and mathematics learning, and their relationship with spatial abilities in children. This study explored the association between the development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) and mathematics achievement, and whether the understanding of specific spatial concepts mediated these relationships. Overall, 154 Year 3 children (69 males, 85 females, aged 7–8 years) from four schools in England completed an FMS assessment involving six skills; four spatial tasks assessing intrinsic-static, intrinsic-dynamic, extrinsic-static, and extrinsic-dynamic spatial abilities; and a mathematics test assessing numerical, geometrical, and arithmetical abilities. Overall FMS ability (a combined score across the six skills) was significantly positively correlated to overall mathematics achievement. This relationship was mediated by children’s performance on the intrinsic-static spatial ability test. These findings suggest that children who have more mature FMS perform better in mathematics tasks, and this could be due to more developed intrinsic-static spatial ability. However, further research is necessary to determine the mediation effects of intrinsic-dynamic and extrinsic-static spatial ability. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tracing Cognitive Processes in Insight Problem Solving: Using GAMs and Change Point Analysis to Uncover Restructuring

by Mario Graf, Amory H. Danek, Nemanja Vaci and Merim Bilalić

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050086 - 03 May 2023

Viewed by 2084

Abstract

Insight problems are likely to trigger an initial, incorrect mental representation, which needs to be restructured in order to find the solution. Despite the widespread theoretical assumption that this restructuring process happens suddenly, leading to the typical “Aha!” experience, the evidence is inconclusive. [...] Read more.

Insight problems are likely to trigger an initial, incorrect mental representation, which needs to be restructured in order to find the solution. Despite the widespread theoretical assumption that this restructuring process happens suddenly, leading to the typical “Aha!” experience, the evidence is inconclusive. Among the reasons for this lack of clarity is that many measures of insight rely solely on the solvers’ subjective experience of the solution process. In our previous paper, we used matchstick arithmetic problems to demonstrate that it is possible to objectively trace problem-solving processes by combining eye movements with new analytical and statistical approaches. Specifically, we divided the problem-solving process into ten (relative) temporal phases to better capture possible small changes in problem representation. Here, we go a step further to demonstrate that classical statistical procedures, such as ANOVA, cannot capture sudden representational change processes, which are typical for insight problems. Only nonlinear statistical models, such as generalized additive (mixed) models (GAMs) and change points analysis, correctly identified the abrupt representational change. Additionally, we demonstrate that explicit hints reorient participants’ focus in a qualitatively different manner, changing the dynamics of restructuring in insight problem solving. While insight problems may indeed require a sudden restructuring of the initial mental representation, more sophisticated analytical and statistical approaches are necessary to uncover their true nature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 461 KiB

Open AccessReview

Does Thinking in Opposites in Order to Think Differently Improve Creativity?

by Ivana Bianchi and Erika Branchini

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050085 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2227

Abstract

In this paper, we focus on the link between thinking in opposites and creativity. Thinking in opposites requires an intuitive, productive strategy, which may enhance creativity. Given the importance of creativity for the well-being of individuals and society, finding new ways to enhance [...] Read more.

In this paper, we focus on the link between thinking in opposites and creativity. Thinking in opposites requires an intuitive, productive strategy, which may enhance creativity. Given the importance of creativity for the well-being of individuals and society, finding new ways to enhance it represents a valuable goal in both professional and personal contexts. We discuss the body of evidence that exists concerning the importance of the first representation of the structure of a problem to be solved, which determines the baseline representation and sets limits on the area within which a problem solver will explore. We then review a variety of interventions described in the literature on creativity and insight problem solving that were designed to overcome fixedness and encourage people to move away from stereotypical solutions. Special attention is paid to the research carried out in the context of problem solving, which provides evidence that prompting people to “think in opposites” is beneficial. We suggest that an extended investigation of the effects of this strategy in various types of tasks related to creativity is an interesting line of research to follow. We discuss the rationale supporting this claim and identify specific questions, both theoretical and methodological, for future research to address. Full article

21 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lay Definitions of Intelligence, Knowledge, and Memory: Inter- and Independence of Constructs

by Jennifer H. Coane, John Cipollini, Talia E. Barrett, Joshua Kavaler and Sharda Umanath

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050084 - 28 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3019

Abstract

The present study examined how lay participants define the following concepts used widely in psychology: being intelligent, knowing, and remembering. In the scientific community, knowledge overlaps with the contents of semantic memory, crystallized intelligence reflects the accumulation of knowledge, knowledge and event memory [...] Read more.

The present study examined how lay participants define the following concepts used widely in psychology: being intelligent, knowing, and remembering. In the scientific community, knowledge overlaps with the contents of semantic memory, crystallized intelligence reflects the accumulation of knowledge, knowledge and event memory interact, and fluid intelligence and working memory correlate. Naturally, the lay public has implicit theories of these constructs. These theories mainly distinguish between intelligent and unintelligent behaviors and tend to include characteristics outside psychometric studies of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence. Here, we asked lay participants from the online platform Prolific to explain “what does being intelligent mean to you?” as well as “knowing” and “remembering” to understand their degree of alignment with theoretical conceptualizations in the research community. Qualitative coding of participant definitions showed that intelligence and knowledge are closely related, but asymmetrically—when defining what it means to be intelligent, participants reference knowledge, but intelligence is not considered in explaining knowing. Although participants note that intelligence is multi-faceted and related to problem-solving, there is an emphasis (in terms of frequency of mentions) on the crystallized side of intelligence (i.e., knowledge). A deeper understanding of lay participants’ mental models of these constructs (i.e., their metacognitions) is essential for bridging gaps between experts and the general public. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Creative Process and Multivariate Factors through a Creative Course “Keep Calm and Be Creative”

by Aleksandra Vuichard, Marion Botella and Isabelle Capron Puozzo

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050083 - 28 Apr 2023

Viewed by 2599

Abstract

Creativity has been studied for a long time and it has become a more significant topic of research in educational fields in recent decades. The present paper outlines a multivariate approach to creativity and substantiates this approach by investigating the creative process and [...] Read more.

Creativity has been studied for a long time and it has become a more significant topic of research in educational fields in recent decades. The present paper outlines a multivariate approach to creativity and substantiates this approach by investigating the creative process and multivariate factors through a creative course for master’s students at the University of Teacher Education in Switzerland. Our goal is to examine more specifically the stages of the creative process and the emerging multivariate factors in different creative activities. The article reports findings from the analysis of students’ creative report process diaries as well as semi-structured interviews. Drawing on experiential learning, this pilot study was conducted in collaboration with master’s student teachers (n = 10). The results show that the different microlevels of the creative process are the subject of variations from one creative experience to another. Most factors of the multivariate approach emerge from this kind of creative training. The discussion will allow for a review of the research results and also a better understanding of the creative process in the pedagogy of creativity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creativity, Intelligence, and Collaboration in 21st Century Education: An Interdisciplinary Challenge)

18 pages, 1458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing Replicability and Generalizability of the Time on Task Effect

by Raimund J. Krämer, Marco Koch, Julie Levacher and Florian Schmitz

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050082 - 28 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1533

Abstract

The time on task (ToT) effect describes the relationship of the time spent on a cognitive task and the probability of successful task completion. The effect has been shown to vary in size and direction across tests and even within tests, depending on [...] Read more.

The time on task (ToT) effect describes the relationship of the time spent on a cognitive task and the probability of successful task completion. The effect has been shown to vary in size and direction across tests and even within tests, depending on the test taker and item characteristics. Specifically, investing more time has a positive effect on response accuracy for difficult items and low ability test-takers, but a negative effect for easy items and high ability test-takers. The present study sought to test the replicability of this result pattern of the ToT effect across samples independently drawn from the same populations of persons and items. Furthermore, its generalizability was tested in terms of differential correlations across ability tests. To this end, ToT effects were estimated for three different reasoning tests and one test measuring natural sciences knowledge in 10 comparable subsamples with a total N = 2640. Results for the subsamples were highly similar, demonstrating that ToT effects are estimated with sufficient reliability. Generally, faster answers tended to be more accurate, suggesting a relatively effortless processing style. However, with increasing item difficulty and decreasing person ability, the effect flipped to the opposite direction, i.e., higher accuracy with longer processing times. The within-task moderation of the ToT effect can be reconciled with an account on effortful processing or cognitive load. By contrast, the generalizability of the ToT effect across different tests was only moderate. Cross-test relations were stronger in relative terms if performance in the respective tasks was more strongly related. This suggests that individual differences in the ToT effect depend on test characteristics such as their reliabilities but also similarities and differences of their processing requirements. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Overconfidence in the Cognitive Reflection Test: Comparing Confidence Resolution for Reasoning vs. General Knowledge

by André Mata

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050081 - 27 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1624

Abstract

This research examines the metacognitive awareness that people have about their reasoning performance in the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT). The first two studies compare confidence judgments about the CRT vs. general knowledge (GK) questions. Results show that (1) people are generally able to [...] Read more.

This research examines the metacognitive awareness that people have about their reasoning performance in the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT). The first two studies compare confidence judgments about the CRT vs. general knowledge (GK) questions. Results show that (1) people are generally able to discriminate between correct and incorrect answers, but this ability is far from perfect, and it is greater for GK questions than for CRT problems. Indeed, and strikingly, (2) incorrect responses to CRT problems are produced with approximately the same level of confidence as correct responses to GK questions. However, (3) even though confidence is high for incorrect responses to CRT problems, it is even higher for correct responses. The results of two additional studies show that these differences in confidence are ultimately related to the conflict that CRT problems pose between intuition and deliberation. These findings have implications for the possibility of implicit error monitoring and dual-process models of overconfidence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

12 pages, 505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Person-Centered Study of Cognitive Ability Dimensions Using Latent Profile Analysis

by Jeffrey M. Conte and Rebecca K. Harmata

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050080 - 26 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1633

Abstract

A number of researchers have called for additional investigations into cognitive ability and intelligence in recent years. This paper utilized a person-centered approach, multiple cognitive ability dimensions, and latent profile analysis to investigate multivariate relationships among cognitive ability dimensions in a sample of [...] Read more.

A number of researchers have called for additional investigations into cognitive ability and intelligence in recent years. This paper utilized a person-centered approach, multiple cognitive ability dimensions, and latent profile analysis to investigate multivariate relationships among cognitive ability dimensions in a sample of 1681 Army recruits. Six cognitive ability dimensions were assessed via the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Performance measures were obtained from supervisor ratings of Effort, Discipline, and Peer Leadership. Using latent profile analysis, the results identified five distinct cognitive profiles or classes, which differed significantly across the three types of supervisor ratings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Ability Testing in the Workplace: Modern Approaches and Methods)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 429 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Use of Cognitive Tests in the Assessment of Dyslexia

by Nancy Mather and Deborah Schneider

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050079 - 26 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7257

Abstract

In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, in the assessment and diagnosis of dyslexia, from both historic and present-day perspectives. We discuss the role of cognitive tests in the operationalization of the concepts of specificity and [...] Read more.

In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, in the assessment and diagnosis of dyslexia, from both historic and present-day perspectives. We discuss the role of cognitive tests in the operationalization of the concepts of specificity and unexpectedness, two constructs considered essential to the characterization of dyslexia since the publication of early case reports in the late nineteenth century. We review the advantages and disadvantages of several approaches to specific learning disabilities’ identification that are used in schools. We also discuss contemporary debates around the use of standardized cognitive testing in dyslexia evaluations, in particular, the arguments of those who favor an approach to diagnosis based on prior history and the results of a comprehensive evaluation and those who favor an approach based on an individual’s response to intervention. We attempt to explain both perspectives by examining clinical observations and research findings. We then provide an argument for how cognitive tests can contribute to an accurate and informed diagnosis of dyslexia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

16 pages, 1312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Influence Path of Metacognitive Reading Strategies on Scientific Literacy

by Yong Xie, Jingying Wang, Siqi Li and Yonghe Zheng

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050078 - 23 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2253

Abstract

This study aims to examine influence paths of three metacognitive reading strategies (metacognitive understanding and remembering strategies, metacognitive summarizing strategies and metacognitive assessing credibility strategies) on scientific literacy, mediated by reading self-efficacy and reading literacy. The dataset included 11,420 15-year-old students from four [...] Read more.

This study aims to examine influence paths of three metacognitive reading strategies (metacognitive understanding and remembering strategies, metacognitive summarizing strategies and metacognitive assessing credibility strategies) on scientific literacy, mediated by reading self-efficacy and reading literacy. The dataset included 11,420 15-year-old students from four Chinese provinces (Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang) who took part in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2018. The results of structural equation model showed that metacognitive assessing credibility strategies had the greatest effect on the scientific literacy, and reading literacy played an important mediating role in the relationship between the three metacognitive reading strategies and scientific literacy. The results of the multi-group structural equation model indicated that there were significant differences in influence pathways between boys and girls, and that the reading self-efficacy of boys and girls played a different role in the impact of metacognitive summarizing strategies on scientific literacy. This study reveals the mechanism and gender difference of metacognitive reading strategies on the scientific literacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

J. Intell., Volume 11, Issue 5 (May 2023) – 20 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI