Next Article in Journal
Magnolia officinalis Bark Extract Prevents Enterocyte Death in a Colitis Mouse Model by Inhibiting ROS-Mediated Necroptosis
Next Article in Special Issue
Assessment of Gnaphalium viscosum (Kunth) Valorization Prospects: Sustainable Recovery of Antioxidants by Different Techniques
Previous Article in Journal
Oxidative Stress-Induced Overactivation of Frog Eggs Triggers Calcium-Dependent Non-Apoptotic Cell Death
Previous Article in Special Issue
Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antibacterial Properties of an Achillea millefolium L. Extract and Its Fractions Obtained by Supercritical Anti-Solvent Fractionation against Helicobacter pylori
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Antioxidants
Volume 11
Issue 12
10.3390/antiox11122434
antioxidants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Salt Eustress Induction in Red Amaranth (Amaranthus gangeticus) Augments Nutritional, Phenolic Acids and Antiradical Potential of Leaves

by
Umakanta Sarker
1,* and
Sezai Ercisli
2
1
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh
2
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Ataturk University, Erzurum 25240, Turkey
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Antioxidants 2022, 11(12), 2434; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11122434
Submission received: 14 October 2022 / Revised: 26 November 2022 / Accepted: 29 November 2022 / Published: 9 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Astonishing World of Phytochemicals: State-of-the-Art for Antioxidants)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Earlier researchers have highlighted the utilization of salt eustress for boosting the nutritional and phenolic acid (PA) profiles and antiradical potential (ARP) of vegetables, which eventually boost food values for nourishing human diets. Amaranth is a rapidly grown, diversely acclimated C4 leafy vegetable with climate resilience and salinity resistance. The application of salinity eustress in amaranth has a great scope to augment the nutritional and PA profiles and ARP. Therefore, the A. gangeticus genotype was evaluated in response to salt eustress for nutrients, PA profile, and ARP. Antioxidant potential and high-yielding genotype (LS1) were grown under four salt eustresses (control, 25 mM, 50 mM, 100 mM NaCl) in a randomized completely block design (RCBD) in four replicates. Salt stress remarkably augmented microelements, proximate, macro-elements, phytochemicals, PA profiles, and ARP of A. gangeticus leaves in this order: control < low sodium chloride stress (LSCS) < moderate sodium chloride stress (MSCS) < severe sodium chloride stress (SSCS). A large quantity of 16 PAs, including seven cinnamic acids (CAs) and nine benzoic acids (BAs) were detected in A. gangeticus genotypes. All the microelements, proximate, macro-elements, phytochemicals, PA profiles, and ARP of A. gangeticus under MSCS, and SSCS levels were much higher in comparison with the control. It can be utilized as preferential food for our daily diets as these antiradical compounds have strong antioxidants. Salt-treated A. gangeticus contributed to excellent quality in the end product in terms of microelements, proximate, macro-elements, phytochemicals, PA profiles, and ARP. A. gangeticus can be cultivated as an encouraging substitute crop in salt-affected areas of the world.

1. Introduction

Amaranth is a promising millennium vegetable with vast diversity [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. It is an alternate source of nutrients because of its richness in vitamin C, minerals [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15], vitamins [16,17,18,19,20], protein [21,22], dietary fiber [23,24,25], leaf pigments [26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42], phenolic compounds [43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58], and flavonoids [59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73] with strong antioxidants [74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86]. Amaranth has a noteworthy contribution as an antioxidant in food manufacturing owing to quenching reactive oxygen species (ROS) [87,88]. Wahid and Ghazanfar [89] reported that extreme salt enhanced the secondary plant metabolites, eventually accelerating plant protection apparatuses against ROS. Salinity enhances ROS production, which causes the oxidation of cellular components. ROS [90]. In plants, antioxidants (non-enzymatic), such as proteins, flavonoids, carbohydrates, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds, and enzymatic antioxidants are capable of ROS detoxification [90,91]. Hence, in human life, salt-tolerant plants could be considered a source of potent antioxidants. These compounds have extraordinary benefits to our food owing to quenching ROS and protecting against numerous diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis, cataracts, retinopathy, emphysema, arthritis, and neuron-damaging diseases [88].
Taste, flavor, and color determine the suitability of foods. Recently, consumers are very much interested in coloring food products. These products have much interest in the nutritional, safety, and beautification aspects of customers as foods. The utilization of natural pigments is considerably increasing day by day. The selected A. gangeticus genotype had sufficient betalains with bright red-violet color. Amaranthus leafy vegetable is an exclusive origin of betalains with significant quenching capacity of free radicals [92]. In low-acid foods, betalains are preferable to be utilized as a food colorant. These have greater stability than anthocyanins for pH [93], have preferential utility in the promotion of health, act as anti-inflammatory compounds, and diminish the risk of cancers of the skin and lungs and cardiovascular diseases.
Amaranth is an extensively acclimated leafy vegetable due to diverse stresses, such as salinity [94,95,96] and drought [97], as well as having multiple uses. Salinity stress is a pioneer for the rapid augmentation of the quantity and quality of natural antioxidants through diverse factors, such as physiological, environmental, ecological, biological, biochemical, and evolutionary processes [98]. Very limited reports on the effect of salinity stress are available in terms of minerals, proximate, and bioactive compounds in different crops including leafy vegetables. Petropoulos et al. [99] reported the salinity-induced reduction of chlorophylls, fat, sugar, and carbohydrate and the augmentation of flavonoids, ascorbic acid (AsA), phenolics, proteins, and ARP in Cichorium spinosum. Different concentrations of sodium chloride enhanced the carotenoid content in buckwheat sprouts in comparison to the control [100]. Alam et al. [101] reported salt-induced amelioration of phenolics, ARP, and flavonoids in purslane. Ahmed et al. [102] recorded a salinity-induced increase in ARP and phenolics in barley. The influence of sodium chloride stress on the phytochemicals, nutrients, ARP, and PA profiles in A. gangeticus was studied for the first time. Based on our previous studies, the ARP genotype (accession LS1) along with high yield potential were selected. Therefore, the response of sodium chloride stress was assessed in A. gangeticus in terms of phytochemicals, nutrients, ARP, and PA profiles.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site, Conditions, and Plant Materials

A high-yielding ARP genotype (accession LS1) was selected from among 120 genotypes from the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding’s collection. The seeds were sown in four replicates following a block design with complete randomization (RCBD) in plastic pots at the Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (24°23′ N, 90°08′ E, 8.4 m.s.l., AEZ-28 [103,104]. Pots were filled with sandy loam soil. P2O5:K2O was applied @ 48:60 kg ha−1 during the final land preparation. However, N was applied @ 46 kg ha−1 in two equally split doses during the final land preparation and 10 days after the sowing of the seeds. Four salt treatments, 100 (severe sodium chloride stress, SSCS), 50 (moderate sodium chloride stress, MSCS), and 25 (low sodium chloride stress, LSCS) mM NaCl, and a control (normal water) were used in the study. Pots were regularly irrigated with normal water for 10 days after sowing (DAS). At 11 DAS, salt treatments were imposed and sustained until the edible stage (30 DAS). Pots were irrigated once a day using salt water (100, 50, and 25 mM NaCl) and normal water. A. gangeticus leaves were harvested at 30 DAS.

2.2. Chemicals

Acetone, HClO4, HNO3, Sb, dithiothreitol (DTT), CsCl, AsA, 2, 2-dipyridyl, Trolox, PAs, HPLC grade acetonitrile, acetic acid, gallic acid (GAA), NaOH, rutin, DPPH, H2SO4, Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, MeOH, ABTS+, AlCl3.6H2O, Na2CO3, CH3CO2K, and K2S2O8. All chemicals were bought from Kanto Chemical Co. Inc. (Tokyo, Japan) and Merck (Germany).

2.3. Ash, Fiber, Moisture, Fat, Gross Energy, Carbohydrate, and Protein Estimation

The ash, fiber, moisture, fat, gross energy, and protein were estimated by the AOAC method [105,106,107]. The mini-Kjeldahl method was followed to measure nitrogen (N). Protein was calculated by multiplying N with 6.25. Protein, ash, fat, and moisture (%) were deducted from 100 to estimate carbohydrates.

2.4. Elements Estimation

The leaves were dried in an oven at 70 °C temperature for 24 h. Mineral elements were determined from the ground leaf by digesting with HNO3 and perchloric acid [105,108]. Exactly 0.5 g of the leaf samples were digested with 400 mL HNO3 (65%), 40 mL HClO4 (70%), and 10 mL H2SO4 (96%). The absorbance was read at 213.9 (Zn), 285.2 (Mg), 766.5 (K), 279.5 (Mn), 248.3 (Fe), 258.056 (S), 422.7 (Ca), 880 (P), 589 (Na), 430 (B), 313.3 (Mo), and 324.8 (Cu) nm wavelengths using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS with flame) (Hitachi, Japan). Macro- and micro-elements were expressed in mg g−1 and µg g−1 FW.

2.5. Beta-Carotene

In a mortar and pestle, 500 mg leaves (fresh) were thoroughly mixed with 10 mL acetone (80%). The mixture was centrifuged at 10,000× g for 3–4 min for β-carotene determination [109]. After the separation of the filtrate in a flask, the final volume of 20 mL was maintained. The absorbance was taken at 510 and 480 nm by spectrophotometer (Tokyo, Japan). β-Carotene was expressed in fresh weight as mg 100 g−1.

2.6. Ascorbic Acid (AsA) Estimation

Fresh leaves were used to determine AsA and DHA. The sample was pre-incubated by dithiothreitol (DTT), which reduced DHA to AsA. With the reduction of AsA, Fe3+ converted to Fe2+. Fe2+ complexes were formed by reacting Fe2+ and 2, 2-dipyridyl [109]. The absorbance of the complexes was taken at 525 nm by a spectrophotometer (Hitachi, Japan) to measure AsA in mg 100 g−1.

2.7. Samples Extraction and Determination of Total Polyphenols (TP), Total Flavonoids (TF), and Antiradical Potential (ARP)

Leaves were dried in a shady place to avoid direct sunshine. The extraction was performed from both the ground dried and fresh leaves (30 d) separately with a mortar and pestle. Total polyphenols (TP) were measured from fresh leaves, while total flavonoids (TF) content and ARP were determined from dried leaves. A 90% MeOH solution 10 mL was added with 0.25 g samples in a capped bottle tightly. The mixture was placed for 1 h in a shaker (Tokyo, Japan) at 60 °C. The final filtrate was stored for TP, TF, and ARP estimation. TF and TP were estimated by the AlCl3 colorimetric method and the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, respectively [105,110]. The absorbance at 760 and 415 nm with a spectrophotometer (Hitachi, Japan). TP and TF were measured as GAA and rutin equivalent μg GAE g−1 of FW and μg RE g−1 DW using standard GAA and rutin curves. The Trolox equivalent antioxidant activity (TEAC) of ARP was estimated by the DPPH reduction and the ABTS+ assay [105,111]. ABTS+ and DPPH reduction percentage equivalent to the control was measured for estimating the ARP using the equation:
ARP (%) = (Ac − As/Ac) × 100
where Ac denotes the control absorbance (150 μL MeOH for ARP (ABTS) and 10 µL MeOH for ARP (DPPH) instead of leaf extract) and As is the absorbance of the samples. The results were calculated as μg Trolox equivalent g−1 DW.

2.8. Samples Extraction and Determination of Phenolic Acids (PAs) by HPLC

Fresh leaves (1 g) were extracted in MeOH (10 mL, 80%) containing CH₃COOH (1%). The thoroughly homogenized mixture was kept in a 50 mL tightly capped test tube and placed in a shaker (Scientific Industries Inc., New York, NY, USA) for 15 h at 400 rpm. It was filtered in a 0.45 µm filter (MA, New York, USA) and centrifuged for 15 min at 10,000× g. The filtrate was used to estimate PAs. All extractions were repeated 3 times. The method of Sarker and Oba [112] was followed to determine PAs using HPLC. Shimadzu HPLC (Kyoto, Japan) was furnished with a binary pump, degasser, and detector. A column (150 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm; Shinwa Chemical Industries, Ltd., Kyoto, Japan) was used for the separation of PAs. Solvent B and solvent A (acetonitrile and 6% (v/v) acetic acid in water, respectively) were pumped for 70 min at 1 mL min−1. HPLC system was run using a gradient program with 0–15% acetonitrile for 45 min, 15–30% for 15 min, 30–50% for 5 min, and 50–100% for 5 min; 35 °C temperature in the column was maintained with a 10 µL volume of injection. For monitoring Pas continuously, the detector was set at 254 and 280 nm. The retention time and UV–vis spectra with their respective standards were compared for the identification of the compound. Pas was estimated as µg g−1 FW.
Each PA was quantified using the corresponding standards of calibration curves. A total of 16 PAs were dissolved in MeOH (80%) 100 mg mL−1 as stock solutions. Individual PAs were quantified using corresponding standard curves (10, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 µg mL−1) with external standards. Retention times, co-chromatography of samples spiked with commercially available standards, and UV spectral characteristics were utilized for identification and matching the PA.

2.9. Statistical Analysis

All the sample data of a trait were averaged for each treatment to obtain a replication mean [113,114,115]. The mean data of various traits were statistically and biometrically analyzed [116,117,118]. Data analysis and ANOVA were performed using Statistix software version 8.0, Tallahassee FL 32312, USA [119,120,121]. The means were compared at a 1% level of probability using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The results were reported as the mean ± SD of four separate replicates [122,123,124].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. The Response of Proximate Compositions to Sodium Chloride Stress

Figure 1 represents the nutritional compositions of A. gangeticus under different salinity stresses. A. gangeticus leaves had a high moisture content like most leafy vegetables. Nevertheless, our study revealed that A. gangeticus leaves have copious ash, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, moisture, and protein. The constituents of these components were several times greater than C. spinosum [99]. The maximum moisture and fat were exhibited under the control treatment, whereas the minimum moisture and fat were observed under SSCS. Petropoulos et al. [99] reported a similar reduction in fat with the increase in salinity stress in C. spinosum. Moisture and fat were significantly reduced in the order: (control > LSCS > MSCS > SSCS) and (control > LSCS > MSCS = SSCS), respectively. Higher leaf dry matter obtained from leaves ensure lower moisture content. Hence, salt-stressed A. gangeticus leaves confirmed greater dry matter in comparison to the control. The maximum dietary fiber, ash, carbohydrates, energy, and protein were recorded at SSCS, while the minimum dietary fiber, ash, carbohydrates, energy, and protein were noticed under the control. Similarly, Petropoulos et al. [99] reported higher ash and protein at the maximum and 8.0 and 6.0 dS m−1, than the control and minimum salinity in C. spinosum. Energy, protein, and dietary fiber contents were sharply augmented in the following order: control < LSCS < MSCS < SSCS, whereas ash and carbohydrates contents were statistically similar in the control and LSS levels and progressively augmented from MSCS to SSCS levels.
In LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS, dietary fiber, energy, carbohydrates, ash, and protein were increased by 17%, 2%, 2%, 9%, and 4%; 6%, 10%, 8%, 14%, and 19%; and 23%, 14%, 9%, 16%, and 29%, respectively, in comparison with the control condition (Figure 2).
Dietary fiber has significantly acted in the remedy of constipation, increased digestibility, and palatability. Vegetarians and deprived rural communities in underdeveloped countries mostly trust A. gangeticus for protein. Since the low amounts consumed in a daily diet, the increments of energy content in the order of control < LSCS < MSCS < SSCS had no substantial influence on the energy balance in humans. The findings of A. gangeticus conformed with the outcomes of AT [91] and leaves of Ipomoea batata [125], respectively. They specified that it influences cell function, the fat covering the body’s organs, and continues the temperature of the body. The fats of vegetables are prime sources of crucial fatty acids, such as Ω-6 and Ω-3. Fats perform a noteworthy contribution to the absorption, digestion, and transportation of vitamins A, E, K, and D.

3.2. Sodium Chloride Impact on Minerals (Macroelements and Microelements) Composition

A. gangeticus has abundant minerals (macroelements and microelements) (Figure 3). High levels of minerals were observed and corroborated with A. tricolor under normal cultivation practice in an open field [126]. A. gangeticus had higher Fe and Zn than Manihot esculenta leaves [127] and Lathyrus japonicus [128]. Jimenez-Aguiar and Grusak [129] also found abundant Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe in different A. spp. They also found higher iron and copper compared with kale and higher Zn compared with leaf cabbage, Spinacia oleracea, and Solanum nigrum. The maximum Zn, Ca, Mo, Mg, Na, S, Cu, B, Mn, and Fe was noticed under the SSCS level, while the minimum levels Zn, Ca, Mo, Mg, Na, Cu, B, Mn, and Fe were reported under control conditions, and the lowest sulfur content was observed under the LSCS level. Zn, Ca, Mo, Mg, Na, Cu, B, and Mn were progressively augmented in the order control < LSCS < MSCS < SSCS. In contrast, potassium and phosphorus contents were drastically reduced in the order control > LSCS > MSCS > SSCS.
In LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS, Zn, Ca, Cu, Mo, Mg, Mn, B, and Na were augmented by −1%, 0.8%, 13%, −1%, 10%, 4%, 1%, and 6%; 21%, 16%, 29%, 24%, 46%, 67%, 24%, and 12%; and 30%, 34%, 67%, 52%, 72%, 100%, 81%, and 36%, respectively, in comparison with the control condition (Figure 4). In LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS, potassium and phosphorus content declined to 5%, 14%, 25%, and 3%, 36%, 42%, respectively, in comparison with the control condition (Figure 4).
Most of the minerals increased under different salt levels compared with control conditions, which were corroborated with minerals of C. spinosum under salinity stress [99]. Petropoulos et al. [99] reported sharp augmentation in calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, and sodium content and a reduction in potassium content in C. spinosum. They stated that the application of fertilizer and treatments of salinity could be the reason for the amelioration of sodium content and suggested that the species utilized accumulated sodium to cope with the adverse effects of salinity. Iron content was statistically similar to the value of the control and LSCS levels, while iron content was progressively augmented under MSCS and SSCS levels by 12% and 62%, respectively. The lowest sulfur content was obtained from the LSCS levels, which differed significantly from the control condition. The sulfur content was gradually augmented under MSCS and SSCS levels by 20% and 51%, respectively (Figure 4).

3.3. Impact of Salinity on Phytochemicals and ARP

Polyphenols, beta-carotene, AsA, flavonoids, and ARP varied significantly under different sodium chloride stresses (Figure 5). Sodium chloride stress progressively augmented polyphenols, beta-carotene, AsA, flavonoids, and ARP in the following order: control < LSCS < MSCS < SSCS.
Beta-carotene, AsA, polyphenols, flavonoids, and ARP (DPPH and ABTS+) under LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS were predominately augmented by 12%, 4%, 5%, 7%, 6%, and 3%; 28%, 18%, 22%, 22%, 20%, and 19%; and 47%, 52%, 54%, 45%, 38%, and 41% than control, respectively (Figure 6).
The maximum polyphenols, beta-carotene, flavonoids, AsA, and ARP (DPPH and ABTS+) were recorded under SSCS. Conversely, the lowest polyphenols, beta-carotene, flavonoids, AsA, and ARP (DPPH and ABTS+) were confirmed under the control. Petropoulos et al. [99] reported the salinity-induced augmentation of flavonoids, ARP, AsA, and phenolics in C spinosum. Different concentrations of sodium chloride enhanced the carotenoid content in buckwheat sprouts in comparison with the control (Lim et al. [100]. Alam et al. [101] reported salt-induced amelioration of phenolics, ARP, and flavonoids in purslane. In barley, a similar salinity-induced increase of ARP and phenolics were stated.

3.4. Response of Salinity on PA Profiles

The HPLC-identified PA values of A. gangeticus (accession LS11) under four sodium chloride stress were compared with PAs using the respective peaks of the compounds (Table 1). Sixteen PAs, including seven CAs and nine Bas, were confirmed in A. gangeticus. Three BAs [protocatechuic acid (PCA), β-resorcylic acid (β-RA), and gentisic acid (GA)] were identified as new compounds for the first time in Amaranthus leaves.
BAs were the amplest among the two categories of acids, thereafter CAs in A. gangeticus (Figure 7 and Figure 9). Salicylic acid (SA) was the most copious PAs across BAs thereafter GAA, GA, PCA, vanillic acid (VA), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (p-HBA), β-RA, and syringic acid (SYA) (Figure 7). BA contents in the A. gangeticus genotype under control conditions were superior to the BA content of A. tricolor [130]. Chlorogenic acid (CHA) was the most noticeable compound across CAs thereafter ferulic acid (FA), sinapic acid (SIA), m-coumaric acid (m-COA), trans-cinnamic acid (Trans-CA), and caffeic acid (CFA) (Figure 7). A. gangeticus had abundant CAs under control conditions. Seven CAs obtained were confirmed superior to CAs of A. tricolor [130]. Phenylalanine is the most extensively distributed PA in plant tissues, which are finally synthesized into CAs [131]. Identified Benzoic acids (BAs) have important biological activities. For instance, gallic acid and its ester derivatives ARE flavoring agents and preservatives in the food industry. There are diverse scientific reports on the biological and pharmacological activities of these phytochemicals, with emphasis on antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective, gastroprotective, and neuroprotective effects [132]. Vanillic acid exerts diverse bioactivity against cancer, diabetes, obesity, neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and hepatic diseases by inhibiting the associated molecular pathways. Its derivatives also possess the therapeutic potential to treat autoimmune diseases, as well as fungal and bacterial infections [133]. Syringic acid shows a wide range of therapeutic applications in the prevention of diabetes, CVDs, cancer, and cerebral ischemia, as well as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiendotoxic, neurologic, and hepatoprotective activities [134]. High salicylate in diets has proven health benefits, such as lower risks of cancer, heart disease, and diabetes. Ellagic acid has been reported to have antimutagenic on bacteria and in mammalian systems as well. It has also shown strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic activities, as well as a better preservative effect against oxidative stress when compared with vitamin E [135]. PCA is a major metabolite of anthocyanin. The pharmacological actions of PCA have been shown to include strong in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity. In in vivo experiments using rats and mice, PCA has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory as well as antihyperglycemic and antiapoptotic activities [136]. β-resorcylic acid has antimicrobial activity [137]. Finally, gentisic acid possesses fibro growth factor inhibition, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities [138].
Sodium chloride stress predominately augmented all the BA compositions. At SSCS, all the BAs displayed the maximum contents, while the minimum BA contents were obtained from the control treatment. From control to SSCS, VA, β-RA, p-HBA, and SYA ranged from 12.24 to 37.15, 8.26 to 16.48, 8.55 to 14.23, and 7.36 to 11.52 µg g−1 FW, respectively (Figure 7). VA, β-RA, p-HBA, and SYA progressively augmented in the order: Control < LSCS < MSCS < SSCS (Figure 7). VA, β-RA, p-HBA, and SYA under LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS were predominately augmented by 20%, 28%, 204%; 14%, 79%, 100%; 15%, 46%, and 66%; and 8%, 30%, and 57% than control, respectively (Figure 8).
SA, GAA, and PCA contents had no statistical variations at the control and LSCS level; however, three acids were augmented remarkably from LSCS to SSCS with a range from 23.83 to 45.82, 15.76 to 22.46, and 11.95 to 23.42 µg g−1 FW, respectively (Figure 7). In MSCS and SSCS, SA, GAA, and PCA contents were augmented by (37% and 92%), (12% and 43%), and (41% and 96%), respectively (Figure 8). GA and ellagic acid (EA) ranged from 12.68 to 22.58 and 5.08 to 6.55 µg g−1 FW. GA and EA had no statistical variations between control and LSCS levels and between MSCS and SSCS levels; however, the contents of these acids were augmented remarkably from control condition or LSCS to MSCS or SSCS level (26% and 77%) (Figure 7 and Figure 8).
All the CA contents were sharply augmented under sodium chloride levels. All the CAs showed the highest contents under the SSCS level, whereas the control treatment exhibited the lowest CA contents. From control to SSCS, CHA, m-COA, and p-coumaric acid (p-COA) ranged from 14.38 to 27.35, 7.87 to 21.36, and 4.16 to 8.75 µg g−1 FW, respectively, (Figure 9). Identified Cinnamic acids (CAs) have important biological activities. For instance, Caffeic acid (CA) and its derivatives have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic activity [139]. Chlorogenic acid was effective in preventing weight gain, inhibiting the development of liver steatosis, and blocking insulin resistance induced by a high-fat diet [140]. p-coumaric acid decreases low-density lipoprotein (LDL) peroxidation, shows antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, and plays an important role in human health [141]. Ferulic acid has low toxicity and possesses many physiological functions (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial activity, anticancer, and antidiabetic effects). It has been widely used in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries [142]. Sinapic acid shows antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-anxiety activity [143]. Cinnamic acids have been identified as interesting compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic properties [144].
CHA, m-COA acid, and p-COA were progressively augmented in the order of control < LSCS < MSCS < SSCS (Figure 9). In LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS, CHA, m-COA acid, and p-COA were predominately augmented by 13%, 42%, 90%; 25%, 74%, 171%; and 23%, 65%, 110% compared with the control condition, respectively (Figure 10). Trans-CA and SIA contents at control condition were statistically similar to the LSCS level; however, these two acids’ contents were remarkably augmented from LSCS to SSCS with a range from 9.85 to 18.62 and 11.35 to 12.56 µg g−1 FW, respectively (Figure 9). In MSCS and SSCS, Trans-CA and SIA contents were augmented by 41% and 89%; and 6% and 11%, respectively (Figure 10). FA and CFA ranged from 8.20 to 20.45 and 6.56 to 7.62 µg g−1 FW, respectively. FA and CFA contents at the control condition were statistically similar to the LSCS level, and at the MSCS level were statistically similar to the SSCS level. However, the contents of these acids were remarkably augmented from the control condition or LSCS to MSCS or SSCS level (47% and 16%) (Figure 9 and Figure 10).
All the PA fractions were sharply and remarkably augmented under sodium chloride stress. All the PA fractions exhibited the highest contents under SSCS level, whereas the control treatment had the lowest PA fractions. From control to SSCS, total BAs, total CAs, and total PAs ranged from 105.71 to 200.21, 62.37 to 116.71, and 168.08 to 316.92, µg g−1 FW, respectively (Figure 11).
Total BAs, total CAs, and total PAs were progressively augmented in the order control < LSCS < MSCS < SSCS (Figure 11). In LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS, total BAs, total CAs, and total PAs were predominately augmented by 7%, 52%, and 89%), (8%, 52%, and 87%), and (7%, 52%, and 89%), compared with control condition, respectively (Figure 12).
Petropoulos et al. [99] reported the salinity-induced augmentation of PAs in C. spinosum. Klados and Tzortzakis [145] showed a progressive increment of total PAs under increased sodium chloride stress in C. spinosum. Alam et al. [101] reported salt-induced amelioration of phenolics in purslane. Ahmed et al. [103] reported a salinity-induced increment of PA profiles in barley. In contrast, Neffati et al. [146] stated the reduction of PA profiles with an increment of sodium chloride concentrations in coriander.
The cost is very low to maintain salt stress by adding sodium chloride to the plants. Furthermore, we suggested cultivating in salt-prone areas where there are no salt susceptible crops grown successfully. So, those areas will be efficiently utilized for amaranth leafy vegetable cultivation to meet the demand for the leafy vegetable of that locality, as leafy vegetables are too susceptible to salinity stress as amaranth is a salinity-tolerant leafy vegetable with up to 200 mM salt concentration. It can produce enough biomass and perform optimal photosynthesis at 100 mM saline stress. Amaranth is highly tolerant to salinity. It can tolerate 200 mM NaCl [147]. As amaranth is salt tolerant, it increases all enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, and metabolites, to detoxify ROS and cope with salt stress.

4. Conclusions

Sodium chloride stress remarkably augmented the energy, ash, carbohydrates, protein, calcium, dietary fiber, magnesium, S, Fe, Mo, Mn, Na, Cu, B, Zn, and ARP of A. gangeticus leaves. All the nutrients, phytochemicals, PA profiles, and ARP of A. gangeticus leaves under MSCS and SSCS levels were superior to the control. It can be utilized as a valued product for human consumption and health benefits. Salt-treated A. gangeticus leaves had abundant nutrients, phytochemicals, PA profiles, and ARP. Phytochemicals, PA profiles, and ARP scavenge ROS that would be advantageous for human health benefits as these bioactive compounds have potent antioxidants. Furthermore, sodium chloride-stressed A. gangeticus contributed with excellent quality in the end users for nutrients, phytochemicals, PA profiles, and ARP. It can be cultivated as a promising substitute crop in sodium chloride-affected areas of the world.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, U.S.; methodology, U.S.; software, U.S.; validation U.S. and S.E.; formal analysis, U.S.; investigation, U.S.; resources, U.S.; data curation, U.S.; writing—original draft preparation, U.S. writing—review and editing, U.S. and S.E.; visualization, U.S.; supervision, U.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data that are recorded in the current study are available in all of the tables and figures of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

For its support of the research work, the author acknowledges the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, the Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Rastogi, A.; Shukla, S. Amaranth: A New Millennium Crop of Nutraceutical Values. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 53, 109–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Promising Das, S. Amaranths: The Crop of Great Prospect. In Amaranthus: A Promising Crop of Future; Springer: Singapore, 2016; pp. 13–48. [Google Scholar]
  3. Sreelathakumary, I.; Peter, K.V. Amaranth: Amaranthus spp. In Genetic Improvement of Vegetable Crops; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1993; pp. 315–323. [Google Scholar]
  4. Sauer, J.D. The Grain Amaranths and Their Relatives: A Revised Taxonomic and Geographic Survey. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1967, 54, 103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Anu, R.; Mishra, B.K.; Mrinalini, S.; Ameena, S.; Rawli, P.; Nidhi, V.; Sudhir, S. Identification of Heterotic Crosses Based on Combining Ability in Vegetable Amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.). Asian J. Agric. Res. 2015, 9, 84–94. [Google Scholar]
  6. Nguyen, D.C.; Tran, D.S.; Tran, T.T.H.; Ohsawa, R.; Yoshioka, Y. Genetic diversity of leafy amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.) resources in Vietnam. Breed. Sci. 2019, 69, 640–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Shukla, S.; Bhargava, A.; Chatterjee, A.; Srivastava, A.; Singh, S.P. Genotypic variability in vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L for foliage yield and its contributing traits over successive cuttings and years. Euphytica 2006, 151, 103–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Alvarez-Jubete, L.; Arendt, E.K.; Gallagher, E. Nutritive Value of Pseudocereals and Their Increasing Use as Functional Gluten-Free Ingredients. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2010, 21, 106–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Achigan-Dako, E.G.; Sogbohossou, O.E.D.; Maundu, P. Current knowledge on Amaranthus spp.: Research avenues for improved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths in sub-Saharan Africa. Euphytica 2014, 197, 303–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Akin-Idowu, P.E.; Odunola, O.A.; Gbadegesin, M.A.; Ademoyegun, O.T.; Aduloju, A.O.; Olagunju, Y.O. Nutritional evaluation of Five Species of Grain Amaranth—An Underutilized Crop. Int. J. Sci. 2017, 3, 18–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Alegbejo, J.O. Nutritional Value and Utilization of Amaranthus (Amaranthus spp.)—A Review. Bayero J. Pure Appl. Sci. 2014, 6, 136–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Shukla, S.; Bhargava, A.; Chatterjee, A.; Pandey, A.C.; Mishra, B.K. Diversity in Phenotypic and Nutritional Traits in Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor), A Nutritionally Underutilised Crop. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2010, 90, 139–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Soriano-García, M.; Arias-Olguín, I.I.; Montes, J.P.C.; Ramírez, D.G.R.; Figueroa, J.S.M.; Flores-Valverde, E.; Valladares-Rodríguez, M.R. Nutritional functional value and therapeutic utilization of Amaranth. J. Anal. Pharm. Res. 2018, 7, 596–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Nutraceuticals, antioxidant pigments, and phytochemicals in the leaves of Amaranthus spinosus and Amaranthus viridis weedy species. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 20413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  15. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Protein, dietary fiber, minerals, antioxidant pigments and phytochemicals, and antioxidant activity in selected red morph Amaranthus leafy vegetable. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0222517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Sarker, U.; Islam, T.; Rabbani, G.; Oba, S. Variability, heritability and genetic association in vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.). Span. J. Agric. Res. 2015, 13, e0702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Andini, R.; Yoshida, S.; Ohsawa, R. Variation in Protein Content and Amino Acids in the Leaves of Grain, Vegetable and Weedy Types of Amaranths. Agronomy 2013, 3, 391–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Manólio Soares, R.A.; Mendonça, S.; Andrade de Castro, L.I.; Cardoso Corrêa Carlos Menezes, A.C.; Gomes Arêas, J.A. Major Peptides from Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) Protein Inhibit HMG-CoA Reductase Activity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16, 4150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Písaríková, B.; Krácmar, S.; Herzig, I. Amino acid Contents and Biological Value of Protein Amaranth. Czech J. Anim. Sci. 2005, 50, 169–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. López, D.N.; Galante, M.; Raimundo, G.; Spelzini, D.; Boeris, V. Functional properties of amaranth, quinoa and chia proteins and the biological activities of their hydrolyzates. Food Res. Int. 2019, 116, 419–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Nutraceuticals, phytochemicals, and radical quenching ability of selected drought-tolerant advance lines of vegetable amaranth. BMC Plant Biol. 2020, 20, 564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Nutritional and bioactive constituents and scavenging capacity of radicals in Amaranthus hypochondriacus. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 19962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Sarker, U.; Oba, S.; Daramy, M.A. Nutrients, minerals, antioxidant pigments and phytochemicals, and antioxidant capacity of the leaves of stem amaranth. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 3892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Sarker, U.; Hossain, M.M.; Oba, S. Nutritional and antioxidant components and antioxidant capacity in green morph Amaranthus leafy vegetable. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 1336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Sarker, U.; Hossain, N.; Iqbal, A.; Oba, S. Bioactive Components and Radical Scavenging Activity in Selected Advance Lines of Salt-Tolerant Vegetable Amaranth. Front. Nutr. 2020, 7, 587257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Cai, Y.; Corke, H. Amaranthus Betacyanin Pigments Applied in Model Food Systems. J. Food Sci. 1999, 64, 869–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Cai, Y.; Sun, M.; Corke, H. Identification and Distribution of Simple and Acylated Betacyanins in the Amaranthaceae. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 49, 1971–1978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Cai, Y.; Sun, M.; Corke, H. HPLC Characterization of Betalains from Plants in the Amaranthaceae. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 2005, 43, 454–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  29. Cai, Y.; Sun, M.; Wu, H.; Huang, R.; Corke, H. Characterization and Quantification of Betacyanin Pigments from Diverse Amaranthus Species. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1998, 46, 2063–2070. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Cai, Y.; Sun, M.; Corke, H. Characterization and Application of Betalain Pigments from Plants of the Amaranthaceae. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2005, 16, 370–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Slimen, I.B.; Najar, T.; Abderrabba, M. Chemical and Antioxidant Properties of Betalains. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2017, 65, 675–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Esatbeyoglu, T.; Wagner, A.E.; Motafakkerazad, R.; Nakajima, Y.; Matsugo, S.; Rimbach, G. Free radical scavenging and antioxidant activity of betanin: Electron spin resonance spectroscopy studies and studies in cultured cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2014, 73, 119–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Gandía-Herrero, F.; Escribano, J.; García-Carmona, F. The Role of Phenolic Hydroxy Groups in the Free Radical Scavenging Activity of Betalains. J. Nat. Prod. 2009, 72, 1142–1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Gandía-Herrero, F.; Escribano, J.; García-Carmona, F. Structural Implications on Color, Fluorescence, and Antiradical Activity in Betalains. Planta 2010, 232, 449–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Gandía-Herrero, F.; Escribano, J.; García-Carmona, F. Purification and Antiradical Properties of the Structural Unit of Betalains. J. Nat. Prod. 2012, 75, 1030–1036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Gandía-Herrero, F.; Escribano, J.; García-Carmona, F. Biological Activities of Plant Pigments Betalains. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016, 56, 937–945. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Khan, M.I. Plant Betalains: Safety, Antioxidant Activity, Clinical Efficacy, and Bioavailability. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2016, 15, 316–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  38. Khan, M.I.; Giridhar, P. Plant betalains: Chemistry and biochemistry. Phytochemistry 2015, 117, 267–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Stintzing, F.C.; Carle, R. Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalains in plants, food, and in human nutrition. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2004, 15, 19–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Taira, J.; Tsuchida, E.; Katoh, M.C.; Uehara, M.; Ogi, T. Antioxidant capacity of betacyanins as radical scavengers for peroxyl radical and nitric oxide. Food Chem. 2015, 166, 531–536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Sarker, U.; Lin, Y.-P.; Oba, S.; Yoshioka, Y.; Hoshikawa, K. Prospects and potentials of underutilized leafy Amaranths as vegetable use for health-promotion. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2022, 182, 104–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Miguel, M.G. Betalains in Some Species of the Amaranthaceae Family: A Review. Antioxidants 2018, 7, 53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Nutrients, minerals, pigments, phytochemicals, and radical scavenging activity in Amaranthus blitum leafy vegetables. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 3868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities in selected drought-tolerant leafy vegetable amaranth. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 18287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Polyphenol and flavonoid profiles and radical scavenging activity in leafy vegetable Amaranthus gangeticus. BMC Plant Biol. 2020, 20, 499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. The Response of Salinity Stress-Induced A. tricolor to Growth, Anatomy, Physiology, Non-Enzymatic and Enzymatic Antioxidants. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 559876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Antioxidant constituents of three selected red and green color Amaranthus leafy vegetable. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 18233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Leaf pigmentation, its profiles and radical scavenging activity in selected Amaranthus tricolor leafy vegetables. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 18617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Color attributes, betacyanin, and carotenoid profiles, bioactive components, and radical quenching capacity in selected Amaranthus gangeticus leafy vegetables. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 11559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Pasko, P.; Bartón, H.; Zagrodzki, P.; Gorinstein, S.; Fołta, M.; Zachwieja, Z. Anthocyanins, Total Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity in Amaranth and Quinoa Seeds and Sprouts During Their Growth. Food Chem. 2009, 115, 994–998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Li, H.; Deng, Z.; Liu, R.; Zhu, H.; Draves, J.; Marcone, M.; Sun, Y.; Tsao, R. Characterization of phenolics, betacyanins and antioxidant activities of the seed, leaf, sprout, flower and stalk extracts of three Amaranthus species. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2015, 37, 75–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Barba de la Rosa, A.P.; Fomsgaard, I.S.; Laursen, B.; Mortensen, A.G.; Olvera-Martínez, L.; Silva-Sánchez, C.; Mendoza-Herrera, A.; González-Castañeda, J.; De León-Rodrígueza, A. Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) as An Alternative Crop for Sustainable Food Production: Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids with Potential Impact on Its Nutraceutical Quality. J. Cereal Sci. 2009, 49, 117–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Peiretti, P.G.; Meineri, G.; Gai, F.; Longato, E.; Amarowicz, R. Antioxidative activities and phenolic compounds of pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seeds and amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) grain extracts. Nat. Prod. Res. 2017, 31, 2178–2182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Stintzing, F.C.; Kammerer, D.; Schieber, A.; Adama, H.; Nacoulma, O.G.; Carle, R. Betacyanins and Phenolic Com-pounds from Amaranthus spinosus L. and Boerhavia erecta L. Z. Naturforsch. C 2004, 59, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Kalinova, J.; Dadakova, E. Rutin and Total Quercetin Content in Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.). Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2009, 64, 68–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Asao, M.; Watanabe, K. Functional and Bioactive Properties of Quinoa and Amaranth. Food Sci. Technol. Res. 2010, 16, 163–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Tang, Y.; Xiao, Y.; Tang, Z.; Jin, W.; Wang, Y.; Chen, H.; Yao, H.; Shan, Z.; Bu, T.; Wang, X. Extraction of Polysaccha-rides from Amaranthus hybridus L. by Hot Water and Analysis of Their Antioxidant Activity. Peer J. 2019, 7, e7149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  58. Ozsoy, N.; Yilmaz, T.; Kurt, O.; Can, A.; Yanardag, R. In vitro antioxidant activity of Amaranthus lividus L. Food Chem. 2009, 116, 867–872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Sarikurkcu, C.; Sahinler, S.S.; Tepe, B. Astragalus gymnolobus, A. leporinus var. hirsutus, and A. onobrychis: Phyto-chemical Analysis and Biological Activity. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2020, 150, 112366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Tatiya, A.U.; Surana, S.J.; Khope, S.D.; Gokhale, S.B.; Sutar, M.P. Phytochemical Investigation and Immunomodulatory Activity of Amaranthus spinosus L. Indian J. Pharm. Educ. Res. 2007, 444, 337–341. [Google Scholar]
  61. Pamela, E.A.I.; Olufemi, T.A.; Yemisi, O.O.; Aduloju, O.A.; Usifo, G.A. Phytochemical Content and Antioxidant Activity of Five Grain Amaranth Species. Am. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 5, 249–255. [Google Scholar]
  62. Pasko, P.; Barton, H.; Fołta, M.; Gwizdz, J. Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity of Amaranth Amaranthus cruentus Grain and by-Products Flour, Popping, Cereal. Rocz. Pánstwowego Zakładu Hig. 2007, 581, 35–40. [Google Scholar]
  63. Nsimba, R.Y.; Kikuzaki, H.; Konishi, Y. Antioxidant Activity of Various Extracts and Fractions of Chenopodium quinoa and Amaranthus spp. Seeds. Food Chem. 2008, 106, 760–766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Tang, Y.; Tsao, R. Phytochemicals in quinoa and amaranth grains and their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential health beneficial effects: A review. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2017, 61, 1600767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Barku, V.Y.A.; Opoku-Boahen, Y.; Owusu-Ansah, E.; Mensah, E.F.; Barku, V.Y.A.; Opoku-Boahen, Y.; Owusu-Ansah, E.; Mensah, E.F. Antioxidant Activity and The Estimation of Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Contents of The Root Extract of Amaranthus spinosus. Asian J. Plant Sci. Res. 2013, 3, 69–74. [Google Scholar]
  66. Bulbul, I.J.; Nahar, L.; Ripa, F.A.; Haque, O. Antibacterial, Cytotoxic and Antioxidant Activity of Chloroform, N-Hexane and Ethyl Acetate Extract of Plant Amaranthus spinosus. Int. J. PharmTech Res. 2011, 33, 1675–1680. [Google Scholar]
  67. Kumar, B.S.A.; Lakshman, K.; Jayaveera, K.; Shekar, D.S.; Kumar, A.A.; Manoj, B. Antioxidant and antipyretic properties of methanolic extract of Amaranthus spinosus leaves. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2010, 3, 702–706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  68. Ishtiaq, S.; Ahmad, M.; Hanif, U.; Akbar, S.; Kamran, S.H. Phytochemical and in-vitro Antioxidant Evaluation of Dif-ferent Fractions of Amaranthus graecizan subsp. Silvestris Vill. Brenan. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2014, 412, 965–971. [Google Scholar]
  69. Karamać, M.; Gai, F.; Longato, E.; Meineri, G.; Janiak, M.A.; Amarowicz, R.; Peiretti, P.G. Antioxidant Activity and Phenolic Composition of Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) during Plant Growth. Antioxidants 2019, 8, 173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Kraujalis, P.; Venskutonis, P.R.; Kraujaliene, V.; Pukalskas, A. Antioxidant properties and preliminary evaluation of phytochemical composition of different anatomical parts of amaranth. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2013, 68, 322–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Kumari, S.; Elancheran, R.; Devi, R. Phytochemical Screening, Antioxidant, Antityrosinase, And Antigenotoxic Potential of Amaranthus viridis Extract. Indian J. Pharmacol. 2018, 50, 130–138. [Google Scholar]
  72. Lopez-Mejía, O.A.; Lopez-Malo, A.; Palou, E. Antioxidant Capacity of Extracts from Amaranth Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. Seeds or Leaves. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2014, 53, 55–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Lucero-Lopez, V.R.; Razzeto, G.S.; Gimenez, M.S.; Escudero, N.L. Antioxidant Properties of Amaranthus hypochondri-acus Seeds and Their Effect on The Liver of Alcohol-Treated Rats. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2011, 66, 157–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Salvamani, S.; Gunasekaran, B.; Shukor, M.Y.; Shaharuddin, N.A.; Sabullah, M.K.; Ahmad, S.A. Anti-HMG-CoA Re-ductase, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Amaranthus viridis Leaf Extract as A Potential Treatment for Hypercholesterolemia. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2016, 2016, 8090841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  75. Sandoval-Sicairos, E.S.; Milán-Noris, A.K.; Luna-Vital, D.A.; Milán-Carrillo, J.; Montoya-Rodríguez, A. Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Peptides Released from Germinated Amaranth During In Vitro Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion. Food Chem. 2021, 1, 128394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Medoua, G.N.; Oldewage-Theron, W.H. Effect of Drying and Cooking on Nutritional Value and Antioxidant Capac-ity of Morogo (Amaranthus hybridus) A Traditional Leafy Vegetable Grown in South Africa. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 51, 736–742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  77. Tesoriere, L.; Allegra, M.; Gentile, C.; Livrea, M.A. Betacyanins as phenol antioxidants. Chemistry and mechanistic aspects of the lipoperoxyl radical-scavenging activity in solution and liposomes. Free Radic. Res. 2009, 43, 706–717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Repo-Carrasco-Valencia, R.; Peña, J.; Kallio, H.; Salminen, S. Dietary fiber and other functional components in two varieties of crude and extruded kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus). J. Cereal Sci. 2009, 49, 219–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Jo, H.-J.; Chung, K.-H.; Yoon, J.A.; Lee, K.-J.; Song, B.C.; An, J.H. Radical Scavenging Activities of Tannin Extracted from Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.). J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2015, 25, 795–802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Subhasree, B.; Baskar, R.; Keerthana, R.L.; Susan, R.L.; Rajasekaran, P. Evaluation of antioxidant potential in selected green leafy vegetables. Food Chem. 2009, 115, 1213–1220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Lacatusu, I.; Arsenie, K.L.V.; Badea, G.; Popa, O.; Oprea, O.; Badea, N. New Cosmetic Formulations with Broad Pho-toprotective and Antioxidative Activities Designed by Amaranth and Pumpkin Seed Oils Nanocarriers. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 123, 424–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Steffensen, S.K.; Pedersen, H.A.; Labouriau, R.; Mortensen, A.G.; Laursen, B.; de Troiani, R.M.; Noellemeyer, E.J.; Janovska, D.; Stavelikova, H.; Taberner, A.; et al. Variation of Polyphenols and Betaines in Aerial Parts of Young, Field-Grown Amaranthus Genotypes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 12073–12082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Niveyro, S.L.; Mortensen, A.G.; Fomsgaard, I.S.; Salvo, A. Differences among five amaranth varieties (Amaranthus spp.) regarding secondary metabolites and foliar herbivory by chewing insects in the field. Arthropod-Plant Interact. 2013, 7, 235–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Bao, X.; Han, X.; Du, G.; Wei, C.; Zhu, X.; Ren, W.; Zeng, L.; Zhang, Y. Antioxidant Activities and Immunomodulatory Effects in Mice of Betalain in vivo. Food Sci. 2019, 40, 196–201. [Google Scholar]
  85. Venskutonis, P.R.; Kraujalis, P. Nutritional Components of Amaranth Seeds and Vegetables: A Review on Composition, Properties, and Uses. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2013, 12, 381–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Repo-Carrasco-Valencia, R.; Hellstrom, J.K.; Philava, J.M.; Mattila, P.H. Flavonoids and Other Phenolic Compounds in Andean Indigenous Grains: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), Kaniwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) and Kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus). Food Chem. 2010, 120, 128–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Esatbeyoglu, T.; Wagner, A.E.; Schiniatbeyo, V.B.; Rimbach, G. Betanin-A food colorant with biological activity. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2015, 59, 36–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Isabelle, M.; Lee, B.L.; Lim, M.T.; Koh, W.-P.; Huang, D.; Ong, C.N. Antioxidant activity and profiles of common fruits in Singapore. Food Chem. 2010, 123, 77–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Wahid, A.; Ghazanfar, A. Possible involvement of some secondary metabolites in salt tolerance of sugarcane. J. Plant Physiol. 2006, 163, 723–730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Gill, S.S.; Tuteja, N. Reactive oxygen species and antioxidant machinery in abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2010, 48, 909–930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Drought Stress Effects on Growth, ROS Markers, Compatible Solutes, Phenolics, Flavonoids, and Antioxidant Activity in Amaranthus tricolor. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2018, 186, 999–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Cai, Y.; Sun, M.; Corke, H. Antioxidant Activity of Betalains from Plants of the Amaranthaceae. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 2288–2294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Stintzing, F.C.; Carle, R. Betalains—Emerging prospects for food scientists. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2007, 18, 514–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Sarker, U.; Islam, T.; Oba, S. Salinity stress accelerates nutrients, dietary fiber, minerals, phytochemicals and antioxidant activity in Amaranthus tricolor leaves. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0206388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  95. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Salinity stress enhances color parameters, bioactive leaf pigments, vitamins, polyphenols, flavonoids and antioxidant activity in selected Amaranthus leafy vegetables. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2019, 99, 2275–2284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Augmentation of leaf color parameters, pigments, vitamins, phenolic acids, flavonoids and antioxidant activity in selected Amaranthus tricolor under salinity stress. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 12349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  97. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Catalase, superoxide dismutase and ascorbate-glutathione cycle enzymes confer drought tolerance of Amaranthus tricolor. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 16496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  98. Selmar, D.; Kleinwächter, M. Influencing the product quality by deliberately applying drought stress during the cultivation of medicinal plants. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2013, 42, 558–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Petropoulos, S.A.; Levizou, E.; Ntatsi, G.; Fernandes, Â.; Petrotos, K.; Akoumianakis, K.; Barros, L.; Ferreira, I.C. Salinity effect on nutritional value, chemical composition and bioactive compounds content of Cichorium spinosum L. Food Chem. 2017, 214, 129–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  100. Lim, J.H.; Park, K.-J.; Kim, B.-K.; Jeong, J.-W.; Kim, H.-J. Effect of salinity stress on phenolic compounds and carotenoids in buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum M.) sprout. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 1065–1070. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Alam, A.; Juraimi, A.S.; Rafii, M.Y.; Hamid, A.A.; Aslani, F.; Alam, M.Z. Effects of salinity and salinity-induced augmented bioactive compounds in purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) for possible economical use. Food Chem. 2015, 169, 439–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Ahmed, I.M.; Cao, F.; Han, Y.; Nadira, U.A.; Zhang, G.; Wu, F. Differential changes in grain ultrastructure, amylase, protein and amino acid profiles between Tibetan wild and cultivated barleys under drought and salinity alone and combined stress. Food Chem. 2013, 141, 2743–2750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Hossain, N.; Sarker, U.; Raihan, S.; Al-Huqail, A.A.; Siddiqui, M.H.; Oba, S. Influence of Salinity Stress on Color Parameters, Leaf Pigmentation, Polyphenol and Flavonoid Contents, and Antioxidant Activity of Amaranthus lividus Leafy Vegetables. Molecules 2022, 27, 1821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  104. Sarker, U.; Rabbani, G.; Oba, S.; Eldehna, W.M.; Al-Rashood, S.T.; Mostafa, N.M.; Eldahshan, O.A. Phytonutrients, Colorant Pigments, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Potential of Orphan Leafy Amaranthus Species. Molecules 2022, 27, 2899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  105. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Response of nutrients, minerals, antioxidant leaf pigments, vitamins, polyphenol, flavonoid and antioxidant activity in selected vegetable amaranth under four soil water content. Food Chem. 2018, 252, 72–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  106. Dola, D.B.; Mannan, A.; Sarker, U.; Al Mamun, A.; Islam, T.; Ercisli, S.; Saleem, M.H.; Ali, B.; Pop, O.L.; Marc, R.A. Nano-iron oxide accelerates growth, yield, and quality of Glycine max seed in water deficits. Front. Plant Sci. 2022, 13, 992535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  107. Yasmin, A.; Mannan, M.A.; Sarker, U.; Dola, D.B.; Higuchi, H.; Ercisli, S.; Ali, B.; Saleem, M.H.; Babalola, O.O. Foliar application of seaweed extracts enhances yield and drought tolerance of soybean. Front. Plant Sci. 2022, 13, 992880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Sarker, U.; Azam, M.; Alam Talukder, Z. Genetic variation in mineral profiles, yield contributing agronomic traits, and foliage yield of stem amaranth. Genetika 2022, 54, 91–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Sarker, U.; Oba, S.; Ercisli, S.; Assouguem, A.; Alotaibi, A.; Ullah, R. Bioactive Phytochemicals and Quenching Activity of Radicals in Selected Drought-Resistant Amaranthus tricolor Vegetable Amaranth. Antioxidants 2022, 11, 578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Sarker, U.; Oba, S.; Alsanie, W.F.; Gaber, A. Characterization of Phytochemicals, Nutrients, and Antiradical Potential in Slim Amaranth. Antioxidants 2022, 11, 1089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Sarker, U.; Iqbal, A.; Hossain, N.; Oba, S.; Ercisli, S.; Muresan, C.C.; Marc, R.A. Colorant Pigments, Nutrients, Bioactive Components, and Antiradical Potential of Danta Leaves (Amaranthus lividus). Antioxidants 2022, 11, 1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Drought stress enhances nutritional and bioactive compounds, phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity of Amaranthus leafy vegetable. BMC Plant Biol. 2018, 18, 258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  113. Faysal, A.S.M.; Ali, L.; Azam, G.; Sarker, U.; Ercisli, S.; Golokhvast, K.S.; Marc, R.A. Genetic Variability, Character Association, and Path Coefficient Analysis in Transplant Aman Rice Genotypes. Plants 2022, 11, 2952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  114. Hassan, J.; Jahan, F.; Rajib, M.R.; Sarker, U.; Miyajima, I.; Ozaki, Y.; Ercisli, S.; Golokhvast, K.S.; Marc, R.A. Color and physiochemical attributes of pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.) influenced by modified atmosphere packaging and postharvest treatment during storage. Front. Plant Sci. 2022, 13, 1016324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  115. Kulsum, U.; Sarker, U.; Rasul, G. Genetic variability, heritability and interrelationship in salt-tolerant lines of T. Aman rice. Genetika 2022, 54, 761–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Hasan, M.J.; Kulsum, M.U.; Sarker, U.; Matin, M.Q.I.; Shahin, N.H.; Kabir, M.S.; Ercisli, S.; Marc, R.A. Assessment of GGE, AMMI, Regression, and Its Deviation Model to Identify Stable Rice Hybrids in Bangladesh. Plants 2022, 11, 2336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  117. Rahman, M.; Sarker, U.; Swapan, A.H.; Raihan, M.S.; Oba, S.; Alamri, S.; Siddiqui, M.H. Combining Ability Analysis and Marker-Based Prediction of Heterosis in Yield Reveal Prominent Heterotic Combinations from Diallel Population of Rice. Agronomy 2022, 12, 1797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Azam, G.; Sarker, U.; Hossain, A.; Iqbal, S.; Islam, R.; Hossain, F.; Ercisli, S.; Kul, R.; Assouguem, A.; Al-Huqail, A.A.; et al. Genetic Analysis in Grain Legumes [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] for Yield Improvement and Identifying Heterotic Hybrids. Plants 2022, 11, 1774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Hassan, J.; Rajib, M.R.; Sarker, U.; Akter, M.; Khan, N.-E.; Khandaker, S.; Khalid, F.; Rahman, G.K.M.M.; Ercisli, S.; Muresan, C.C.; et al. Optimizing textile dyeing wastewater for tomato irrigation through physiochemical, plant nutrient uses and pollution load index of irrigated soil. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 10088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Prodhan, M.; Sarker, U.; Hoque, A.; Biswas, S.; Ercisli, S.; Assouguem, A.; Ullah, R.; Almutairi, M.H.; Mohamed, H.R.H.; Najda, A. Foliar Application of GA3 Stimulates Seed Production in Cauliflower. Agronomy 2022, 12, 1394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Azad, A.K.; Sarker, U.; Ercisli, S.; Assouguem, A.; Ullah, R.; Almeer, R.; Sayed, A.A.; Peluso, I. Evaluation of Combining Ability and Heterosis of Popular Restorer and Male Sterile Lines for the Development of Superior Rice Hybrids. Agronomy 2022, 12, 965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Hasan, M.J.; Kulsum, M.U.; Majumder, R.R.; Sarker, U. Genotypic Variability for Grain Quality Attributes in Restorer Lines of Hybrid Rice. Genetika 2020, 52, 973–989 doi 102298/GENSR2003973H. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Hasan-Ud-Daula, M.; Sarker, U. Variability, Heritability, Character Association, and Path Coefficient Analysis in Advanced Breeding Lines of Rice (Oryza sativa L.). Genetika 2020, 52, 711–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Rashad, M.M.I.; Sarker, U. Genetic Variations in Yield and Yield Contributing Traits of Green Amaranth. Genetika 2020, 52, 393–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Sun, H.; Mu, T.; Xi, L.; Zhang, M.; Chen, J. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) leaves as nutritional and functional foods. Food Chem. 2014, 156, 380–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Shukla, S.; Bhargava, A.; Chatterjee, A.; Srivastava, J.; Singh, N.; Singh, S.P. Mineral profile and variability in vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor). Plant Food. Hum. Nutri. 2006, 61, 23–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Madruga, M.S.; Camara, F.S. The chemical composition of “Multimistura” as a food supplement. Food Chem. 2000, 68, 41–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Shahidi, F.; Chavan, U.; Bal, A.; McKenzie, D. Chemical composition of beach pea (Lathyrus maritimus L.) plant parts. Food Chem. 1999, 64, 39–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Jiménez-Aguilar, D.M.; Grusak, M.A. Minerals, vitamin C, phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity of Amaranthus leafy vegetables. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2017, 58, 33–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  130. Khanam, U.K.S.; Oba, S.; Yanase, E.; Murakami, Y. Phenolic acids, flavonoids and total antioxidant capacity of selected leafy vegetables. J. Funct. Foods. 2012, 4, 979–987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Robbins, R.J. Phenolic Acids in Foods: An Overview of Analytical Methodology. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 2866–2887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Kahkeshani, N.; Farzaei, F.; Fotouhi, M.; Alavi, S.S.; Bahramsoltani, R.; Naseri, R.; Momtaz, S.; Abbasabadi, Z.; Rahimi, R.; Farzaei, M.H.; et al. Pharmacological effects of gallic acid in health and disease: A mechanistic review. Iran J. Basic Med. Sci 2019, 22, 225–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Kaur, J.; Gulati, M.; Singh, S.K.; Kuppusamy, G.; Kapoor, B.; Mishra, V.; Gupta, S.; Arshad, M.F.; Porwal, O.; Jha, N.K.; et al. Discovering multifaceted role of vanillic acid beyond flavours: Nutraceutical and therapeutic potential. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 122, 187–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Cheemanapalli, S.; Mopuri, R.; Golla, R.; Anurudha, C.M.; Chitta, S.K. Syringic acid (SA)—A review of its occurrence, biosynthesis, pharmacological and industrial importance. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2018, 108, 547–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Sharifi-Rad, J.; Quispe, C.; Castillo, C.M.S.; Caroca, R.; Lazo-Vélez, M.A.; Antonyak, H.; Polishchuk, A.; Lysiuk, R.; Oliinyk, P.; De Masi, L.; et al. Ellagic Acid: A Review on Its Natural Sources, Chemical Stability, and Therapeutic Potential. Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev. 2022, 2022, 3848084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  136. Semaming, Y.; Pannengpetch, P.; Chattipakorn, S.C.; Chattipakorn, N. Pharmacological Properties of Protocatechuic Acid and Its Potential Roles as Complementary Medicine. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2015, 11, 593902. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  137. Wagle, B.R.; Upadhyay, A.; Arsi, K.; Shrestha, S.; Venkitanarayanan, K.; Donoghue, A.M.; Donoghue, D.J. Application of β-Resorcylic Acid as Potential Antimicrobial Feed Additive to Reduce Campylobacter Colonization in Broiler Chickens. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  138. Abedi, F.; Razavi, B.M.; Hosseinzadeh, H. A review on gentisic acid as a plant derived phenolic acid and me-tabolite of aspirin: Comprehensive pharmacology, toxicology, and some pharmaceutical aspects. Phytother. Res. 2020, 34, 729–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  139. Espíndola, K.M.M.; Ferreira, R.G.; Narvaez, L.E.M.; Rosario, A.C.R.S.; Da Silva, A.H.M.; Silva, A.G.B.; Vieira, A.P.O.; Monteiro, M.C. Chemical and Pharmacological Aspects of Caffeic Acid and Its Activity in Hepatocarcinoma. Front. Oncol. 2019, 9, 541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  140. Santana-Gálvez, J.; Cisneros-Zevallos, L.; Jacobo-Velázquez, D.A. Chlorogenic Acid: Recent Advances on Its Dual Role as a Food Additive and a Nutraceutical against Metabolic Syndrome. Molecules 2017, 22, 358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  141. Boz, H. p-Coumaric acid in cereals: Presence, antioxidant and antimicrobial effects. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 50, 2323–2328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Zduńska, K.; Dana, A.; Kolodziejczak, A.; Rotsztejn, H. Antioxidant Properties of Ferulic Acid and Its Possible Application. Ski. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2018, 31, 332–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Nićiforović, N.; Abramovič, H. Sinapic Acid and Its Derivatives: Natural Sources and Bioactivity. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2014, 13, 34–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  144. Pontiki, E.; Hadjipavlou-Litina, D.; Litinas, K.; Geromichalos, G. Novel Cinnamic Acid Derivatives as Antioxidant and Anticancer Agents: Design, Synthesis and Modeling Studies. Molecules 2014, 19, 9655–9674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  145. Klados, E.; Tzortzakis, N. Effects of Substrate and Salinity in Hydroponically Grown Cichorium spinosum. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2014, 14, 211–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  146. Neffati, M.; Sriti, J.; Hamdaoui, G.; Kchouk, M.E.; Marzouk, B. Salinity Impact on Fruit Yield, Essential Oil Composition and Antioxidant Activities of Coriandrum sativum Fruit Extracts. Food Chem. 2011, 124, 221–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  147. Omamt, E.N.; Hammes, P.S.; Robbertse, P.J. Differences in Salinity Tolerance for Growth and Water-Use Efficiency in Some Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) genotypes. New Zealand J. Crop Hortic. Sci. 2006, 34, 11–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Antioxidants 11 02434 g001 550
Figure 1. The response of ash, fiber, moisture, fat, gross energy, carbohydrate, and protein (g 100 g−1) to control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) (p < 0.01).
Figure 1. The response of ash, fiber, moisture, fat, gross energy, carbohydrate, and protein (g 100 g−1) to control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) (p < 0.01).
Antioxidants 11 02434 g001
Antioxidants 11 02434 g002 550
Figure 2. Changes of ash, fiber, moisture, fat, gross energy, carbohydrate, and protein over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Figure 2. Changes of ash, fiber, moisture, fat, gross energy, carbohydrate, and protein over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Antioxidants 11 02434 g002
Antioxidants 11 02434 g003 550
Figure 3. Response of minerals concentration (A) macroelements and (B) microelements under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Figure 3. Response of minerals concentration (A) macroelements and (B) microelements under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Antioxidants 11 02434 g003
Antioxidants 11 02434 g004 550
Figure 4. Response of minerals (macroelements and microelements) over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Figure 4. Response of minerals (macroelements and microelements) over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Antioxidants 11 02434 g004
Antioxidants 11 02434 g005 550
Figure 5. Effect of salinity treatments (control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS) on phytochemicals composition in A. gangeticus accession. Flavonoids (µg RE g−1 DW), AsA and beta-carotene (mg 100 g−1 FW), ARP (DPPH and ABTS+) (µg TEAC g−1 DW), and polyphenols (µg GAE g−1 FW), (n = 6); different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Figure 5. Effect of salinity treatments (control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS) on phytochemicals composition in A. gangeticus accession. Flavonoids (µg RE g−1 DW), AsA and beta-carotene (mg 100 g−1 FW), ARP (DPPH and ABTS+) (µg TEAC g−1 DW), and polyphenols (µg GAE g−1 FW), (n = 6); different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Antioxidants 11 02434 g005
Antioxidants 11 02434 g006 550
Figure 6. Comparison of phytochemicals over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Figure 6. Comparison of phytochemicals over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Antioxidants 11 02434 g006
Antioxidants 11 02434 g007 550
Figure 7. Impact of BAs concentrations (µg g−1 FW) under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Figure 7. Impact of BAs concentrations (µg g−1 FW) under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Antioxidants 11 02434 g007
Antioxidants 11 02434 g008 550
Figure 8. Comparison of BAs composition over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Figure 8. Comparison of BAs composition over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Antioxidants 11 02434 g008
Antioxidants 11 02434 g009 550
Figure 9. Response of CAs composition (µg g−1 FW) under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Figure 9. Response of CAs composition (µg g−1 FW) under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6), different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Antioxidants 11 02434 g009
Antioxidants 11 02434 g010 550
Figure 10. Comparison of CAs over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Figure 10. Comparison of CAs over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Antioxidants 11 02434 g010
Antioxidants 11 02434 g011 550
Figure 11. Increase of PA fractions (µg g−1 FW) (total BAs, total CAs, and total PAs) under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6); different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Figure 11. Increase of PA fractions (µg g−1 FW) (total BAs, total CAs, and total PAs) under control, LSCS, MSCS, and SSCS in A. gangeticus accession; (n = 6); different letters in columns are varied significantly by DMRT (p < 0.01).
Antioxidants 11 02434 g011
Antioxidants 11 02434 g012 550
Figure 12. Comparison of phenolics acid fractions (total BA, total CAs, and total PAs) over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Figure 12. Comparison of phenolics acid fractions (total BA, total CAs, and total PAs) over control in A. gangeticus accession.
Antioxidants 11 02434 g012
Table
Table 1. Wavelengths of maximum absorption in the visible region (λmax), mass spectral data, retention time (Rt), and tentative identification of PAs in A. gangeticus.
Table 1. Wavelengths of maximum absorption in the visible region (λmax), mass spectral data, retention time (Rt), and tentative identification of PAs in A. gangeticus.
Peak NoRt
(min)		λmax (nm)Molecular Ion
[M-H]−
(m/z)		MS2
(m/z)		Identity of Tentative Phenolic Acids
19.1254169.1142169.15633,4,5 Trihydroxybenzoic acid
230.6254167.1214167.15644-Hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid
334.8254197.1132197.11043,5-Dimethoxy-4-hydroxybenzoic acid
431.5254137.0213137.15744-Hydroxybenzoic acid
548.2254137.2113137.15822-Hydroxybenzoic acid
652.5254301.0423301.06432,3,7,8-Tetrahydroxy-chromeno [5,4,3-cde] chromene-5,10-dione
72.2280154.1212154.11573,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
84.0280154.1212154.01562,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
93.7280154.1212154.11572,5- Dihydroxybenzoic acid
1032.0280179.0821179.06873,4-Dihydroxy-trans-cinnamate
1131.1280353.1253353.15423-(3,4-Dihydroxy cinnamoyl) quinic acid
1242.0280163.0658163.12414-Hydroxy cinnamic acid
1347.9280193.1726193.16493-Methoxy-4-hydroxy cinnamic acid
1449.6280163.2547163.28723-Hydroxy cinnamic acid
1549.0280223.1568223.17484-Hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy cinnamic acid
1667.3280147.1142147.11033-Phenyl acrylic acid
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sarker, U.; Ercisli, S. Salt Eustress Induction in Red Amaranth (Amaranthus gangeticus) Augments Nutritional, Phenolic Acids and Antiradical Potential of Leaves. Antioxidants 2022, 11, 2434. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11122434

AMA Style

Sarker U, Ercisli S. Salt Eustress Induction in Red Amaranth (Amaranthus gangeticus) Augments Nutritional, Phenolic Acids and Antiradical Potential of Leaves. Antioxidants. 2022; 11(12):2434. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11122434

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sarker, Umakanta, and Sezai Ercisli. 2022. "Salt Eustress Induction in Red Amaranth (Amaranthus gangeticus) Augments Nutritional, Phenolic Acids and Antiradical Potential of Leaves" Antioxidants 11, no. 12: 2434. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11122434

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop