Brain Sciences

14 pages, 1757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vestibular Stimulation May Drive Multisensory Processing: Principles for Targeted Sensorimotor Therapy (TSMT)

by Brigitta Tele-Heri, Karoly Dobos, Szilvia Harsanyi, Judit Palinkas, Fanni Fenyosi, Rudolf Gesztelyi, Csaba E. More and Judit Zsuga

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1111; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081111 - 23 Aug 2021

Viewed by 4757

Abstract

At birth, the vestibular system is fully mature, whilst higher order sensory processing is yet to develop in the full-term neonate. The current paper lays out a theoretical framework to account for the role vestibular stimulation may have driving multisensory and sensorimotor integration. [...] Read more.

At birth, the vestibular system is fully mature, whilst higher order sensory processing is yet to develop in the full-term neonate. The current paper lays out a theoretical framework to account for the role vestibular stimulation may have driving multisensory and sensorimotor integration. Accordingly, vestibular stimulation, by activating the parieto-insular vestibular cortex, and/or the posterior parietal cortex may provide the cortical input for multisensory neurons in the superior colliculus that is needed for multisensory processing. Furthermore, we propose that motor development, by inducing change of reference frames, may shape the receptive field of multisensory neurons. This, by leading to lack of spatial contingency between formally contingent stimuli, may cause degradation of prior motor responses. Additionally, we offer a testable hypothesis explaining the beneficial effect of sensory integration therapies regarding attentional processes. Key concepts of a sensorimotor integration therapy (e.g., targeted sensorimotor therapy (TSMT)) are also put into a neurological context. TSMT utilizes specific tools and instruments. It is administered in 8-weeks long successive treatment regimens, each gradually increasing vestibular and postural stimulation, so sensory-motor integration is facilitated, and muscle strength is increased. Empirically TSMT is indicated for various diseases. Theoretical foundations of this sensorimotor therapy are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Developmental Neuroscience)

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13 pages, 2477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Innovation in Digital Education: Lessons Learned from the Multiple Sclerosis Management Master’s Program

by Isabel Voigt, Christine Stadelmann, Sven G. Meuth, Richard H. W. Funk, Franziska Ramisch, Joachim Niemeier and Tjalf Ziemssen

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081110 - 23 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3129

Abstract

Since 2020, the master’s program “Multiple Sclerosis Management” has been running at Dresden International University, offering structured training to become a multiple sclerosis specialist. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many planned teaching formats had to be changed to online teaching. The subject of [...] Read more.

Since 2020, the master’s program “Multiple Sclerosis Management” has been running at Dresden International University, offering structured training to become a multiple sclerosis specialist. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many planned teaching formats had to be changed to online teaching. The subject of this paper was the investigation of a cloud-based digital hub and student evaluation of the program. Authors analyzed use cases of computer-supported collaborative learning and student evaluation of courses and modules using the Gioia method and descriptive statistics. The use of a cloud-based digital hub as a central data platform proved to be highly successful for learning and teaching, as well as for close interaction between lecturers and students. Students rated the courses very positively in terms of content, knowledge transfer and interaction. The implementation of the master’s program was successful despite the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic. The resulting extensive use of digital tools demonstrates the “new normal” of future learning, with even more emphasis on successful online formats that also increase interaction between lecturers and students in particular. At the same time, there will continue to be tailored face-to-face events to specifically increase learning success. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Innovation in Multiple Sclerosis Management)

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11 pages, 257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Regression in Down Syndrome

by Benjamin Handen, Isabel Clare, Charles Laymon, Melissa Petersen, Shahid Zaman, Sid O'Bryant, Davneet Minhas, Dana Tudorascu, Stephanie Brown and Bradley Christian

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081109 - 23 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2380

Abstract

Background: Acute regression has been reported in some individuals with Down syndrome (DS), typically occurring between the teenage years and mid to late 20s. Characterized by sudden, and often unexplained, reductions in language skills, functional living skills and reduced psychomotor activity, some individuals [...] Read more.

Background: Acute regression has been reported in some individuals with Down syndrome (DS), typically occurring between the teenage years and mid to late 20s. Characterized by sudden, and often unexplained, reductions in language skills, functional living skills and reduced psychomotor activity, some individuals have been incorrectly diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Methods: This paper compares five individuals with DS who previously experienced acute regression with a matched group of 15 unaffected individuals with DS using a set of AD biomarkers. Results: While the sample was too small to conduct statistical analyses, findings suggest there are possible meaningful differences between the groups on proteomics biomarkers (e.g., NfL, total tau). Hippocampal, caudate and putamen volumes were slightly larger in the regression group, the opposite of what was hypothesized. A slightly lower amyloid load was found on the PET scans for the regression group, but no differences were noted on tau PET. Conclusions: Some proteomics biomarker findings suggest that individuals with DS who experience acute regression may be at increased risk for AD at an earlier age in comparison to unaffected adults with DS. However, due to the age of the group (mean 38 years), it may be too early to observe meaningful group differences on image-based biomarkers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Down Syndrome: Neuropsychological Phenotype across the Lifespan)

9 pages, 269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PER Gene Family Polymorphisms in Relation to Cluster Headache and Circadian Rhythm in Sweden

by Felicia Jennysdotter Olofsgård, Caroline Ran, Carmen Fourier, Catalina Wirth, Christina Sjöstrand, Elisabet Waldenlind, Anna Steinberg and Andrea Carmine Belin

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081108 - 23 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2173

Abstract

The trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia, cluster headache (CH), is one of the most painful disorders known to man. One of the disorder’s most striking features is the reported diurnal rhythmicity of the attacks. For a majority of patients, the headache attacks occur at approximately [...] Read more.

The trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia, cluster headache (CH), is one of the most painful disorders known to man. One of the disorder’s most striking features is the reported diurnal rhythmicity of the attacks. For a majority of patients, the headache attacks occur at approximately the same time every day. Genetic variants of genes involved in the circadian rhythm such as Period Circadian Regulator 1, 2, and 3 (PER1, 2 and 3) are hypothesized to have an effect on the rhythmicity of the attacks. Six PER1, 2 and 3 genetic markers; the indel rs57875989 and five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), rs2735611, rs2304672, rs934945, rs10462020, and rs228697, were genotyped, using TaqMan^® or regular polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in a Swedish CH case control material. Logistic regression showed no association between CH and any of the six genetic variants; rs57875989, p = 0.523; rs2735611, p = 0.416; rs2304672, p = 0.732; rs934945, p = 0.907; rs10462020, p = 0.726; and rs228697, p = 0.717. Furthermore, no difference in allele frequency was found for patients reporting diurnal rhythmicity of attacks, nor were any of the variants linked to diurnal preference. The results of this study indicate no involvement of these PER genetic variants in CH or diurnal phenotype in Sweden. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Aspects of Primary Headache)

16 pages, 2186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Light Sedation with Midazolam on Functional Connectivity of the Dorsal Attention Network

by Junkai Wang, Yachao Xu, Gopikrishna Deshpande, Kuncheng Li, Pei Sun and Peipeng Liang

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1107; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081107 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2263

Abstract

Altered connectivity within and between the resting-state networks (RSNs) brought about by anesthetics that induce altered consciousness remains incompletely understood. It is known that the dorsal attention network (DAN) and its anticorrelations with other RSNs have been implicated in consciousness. However, the role [...] Read more.

Altered connectivity within and between the resting-state networks (RSNs) brought about by anesthetics that induce altered consciousness remains incompletely understood. It is known that the dorsal attention network (DAN) and its anticorrelations with other RSNs have been implicated in consciousness. However, the role of DAN-related functional patterns in drug-induced sedative effects is less clear. In the current study, we investigated altered functional connectivity of the DAN during midazolam-induced light sedation. In a placebo-controlled and within-subjects experimental study, fourteen healthy volunteers received midazolam or saline with a 1-week interval. Resting-state fMRI data were acquired before and after intravenous drug administration. A multiple region of interest-driven analysis was employed to investigate connectivity within and between RSNs. It was found that functional connectivity was significantly decreased by midazolam injection in two regions located in the left inferior parietal lobule and the left middle temporal area within the DAN as compared with the saline condition. We also identified three clusters in anticorrelation between the DAN and other RSNs for the interaction effect, which included the left medial prefrontal cortex, the right superior temporal gyrus, and the right superior frontal gyrus. Connectivity between all regions and DAN was significantly decreased by midazolam injection. The sensorimotor network was minimally affected. Midazolam decreased functional connectivity of the dorsal attention network. These findings advance the understanding of the neural mechanism of sedation, and such functional patterns might have clinical implications in other medical conditions related to patients with cognitive impairment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multimodal Data Fusion on Patients with Cognitive Impairment)

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12 pages, 890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Glucocorticoid on a Cellular Model of Parkinson’s Disease: Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Function

by Silvia Claros, Antonio Gil, Mauro Martinelli, Nadia Valverde, Estrella Lara, Federica Boraldi, Jose Pavia, Elisa Martín-Montañez and María Garcia-Fernandez

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081106 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2520

Abstract

Stress seems to contribute to the neuropathology of Parkinson’s disease (PD), possibly by dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Oxidative distress and mitochondrial dysfunction are key factors involved in the pathophysiology of PD and neuronal glucocorticoid-induced toxicity. Animal PD models have been generated to [...] Read more.

Stress seems to contribute to the neuropathology of Parkinson’s disease (PD), possibly by dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Oxidative distress and mitochondrial dysfunction are key factors involved in the pathophysiology of PD and neuronal glucocorticoid-induced toxicity. Animal PD models have been generated to study the effects of hormonal stress, but no in vitro model has yet been developed. Our aim was to examine the impact of corticosterone (CORT) administration on a dopaminergic neuronal cell model of PD induced by the neurotoxin MPP⁺, as a new combined PD model based on the marker of endocrine response to stress, CORT, and oxidative-mitochondrial damage. We determined the impact of CORT, MPP⁺ and their co-incubation on reactive oxygen species production (O2^−•), oxidative stress cellular markers (advanced-oxidation protein products and total antioxidant status), mitochondrial function (mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate) and neurodegeneration (Fluoro-Jade staining). Accordingly, the administration of MPP⁺ or CORT individually led to cell damage compared to controls (p < 0.05), as determined by several methods, whereas their co-incubation produced strong cell damage (p < 0.05). The combined model described here could be appropriate for investigating neuropathological hallmarks and for evaluating potential new therapeutic tools for PD patients suffering mild to moderate emotional stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection and Oxidative Distress)

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Graphical abstract

8 pages, 888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of a New Mutation in RSK2, the Gene for Coffin–Lowry Syndrome (CLS), in Two Related Patients with Mild and Atypical Phenotypes

by Mariateresa Di Stazio, Stefania Bigoni, Nicola Iuso, Josef Vuch, Rita Selvatici, Sheila Ulivi and Pio Adamo d’Adamo

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081105 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2375

Abstract

Background: Coffin–Lowry syndrome (CLS) is a syndromic form of X-linked intellectual disability, in which specific associated facial, hand, and skeletal abnormalities are diagnostic features. Methods: In the present study, an unreported missense genetic variant of the ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) [...] Read more.

Background: Coffin–Lowry syndrome (CLS) is a syndromic form of X-linked intellectual disability, in which specific associated facial, hand, and skeletal abnormalities are diagnostic features. Methods: In the present study, an unreported missense genetic variant of the ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) gene has been identified, by next-generation sequencing, in two related males with two different phenotypes of intellectual disability (ID) and peculiar facial dysmorphisms. We performed functional studies on this variant and another one, already reported in the literature, involving the same amino acid residue but, to date, without an efficient characterization. Results: Our study demonstrated that the two variants involving residue 189 significantly impaired its kinase activity. Conclusions: We detected a loss-of-function RSK2 mutation with loss in kinase activity in a three-generation family with an X-linked ID. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intellectual Disability: From Genetics to Clinical Neuroscience, and Back)

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13 pages, 2034 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Reality (VR)-Based Environmental Enrichment in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and Mild Dementia

by Waleed Riaz, Zain Yar Khan, Ali Jawaid and Suleman Shahid

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1103; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081103 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5706

Abstract

Background: Despite an alarming rise in the global prevalence of dementia, the available modalities for improving cognition and mental wellbeing of dementia patients remain limited. Environmental enrichment is an experimental paradigm that has shown promising anti-depressive and memory-enhancing effects in pre-clinical studies. However, [...] Read more.

Background: Despite an alarming rise in the global prevalence of dementia, the available modalities for improving cognition and mental wellbeing of dementia patients remain limited. Environmental enrichment is an experimental paradigm that has shown promising anti-depressive and memory-enhancing effects in pre-clinical studies. However, its clinical utility has remained limited due to the lack of effective implementation strategies. Objective: The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the usability (tolerability and interactivity) of a long-term virtual reality (VR)- based environmental enrichment training program in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and mild dementia. A secondary objective was to assess the effect of VR-based environmental enrichment on stabilization of cognitive functioning and improvement of mental wellbeing in older adults with MCI and mild dementia. Methods: A total of seven participants (four patients with MCI and three with mild dementia) received biweekly VR-based environmental enrichment over a course of 6 months. The tolerability and interactivity of the participants in the VR training was serially assessed via virtual reality sickness questionnaire (VRSQ) and recording of input-error ratio. Cognitive functioning was assessed through Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) before and after the study. Mental wellbeing was assessed through Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well Being Scale (WEMWBS). Results: VR-based environmental enrichment was well-tolerated by the patients with significant decrease in VRSQ scores (p < 0.01) and input-error ratio (p < 0.001) overtime. VR training was also effective in stabilization of MoCA scores over the course of therapy (non-significant difference in the MoCA scores before and after the therapy) and was associated with a trend (p < 0.1) towards improvement in WEMWBS scores between the first and the last assessments. Qualitative observations by the care-givers further corroborated a noticeable improvement in mental wellbeing of patients. Conclusions: This pilot study shows that VR can be a feasible, tolerable, and potentially effective tool in long-term support of older adults with MCI and mild dementia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular and Cellular Foundations of the Brain–Mind Connection)

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15 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prefrontal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Globally Improves Learning but Does Not Selectively Potentiate the Benefits of Targeted Memory Reactivation on Awake Memory Consolidation

by Médhi Gilson, Michael A. Nitsche and Philippe Peigneux

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081104 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2138

Abstract

Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can enhance memory consolidation. It is currently unknown whether TMR reinforced by simultaneous tDCS has superior efficacy. In this study, we investigated the complementary effect of TMR and bilateral tDCS on the consolidation [...] Read more.

Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can enhance memory consolidation. It is currently unknown whether TMR reinforced by simultaneous tDCS has superior efficacy. In this study, we investigated the complementary effect of TMR and bilateral tDCS on the consolidation of emotionally neutral and negative declarative memories. Participants learned neutral and negative word pairs. Each word pair was presented with an emotionally compatible sound. Following learning, participants spent a 20 min retention interval awake under four possible conditions: (1) TMR alone (i.e., replay of 50% of the associated sounds), (2) TMR combined with anodal stimulation of the left DLPFC, (3) TMR combined with anodal stimulation of the right DLPFC and (4) TMR with sham tDCS. Results evidenced selective memory enhancement for the replayed stimuli in the TMR-only and TMR-sham conditions, which confirms a specific effect of TMR on memory. However, memory was enhanced at higher levels for all learned items (irrespective of TMR) in the TMR-anodal right and TMR-anodal left tDCS conditions, suggesting that the beneficial effects of tDCS overshadow the specific effects of TMR. Emotionally negative memories were not modulated by tDCS hemispheric polarity. We conclude that electrical stimulation of the DLPFC during the post-learning period globally benefits memory consolidation but does not potentiate the specific benefits of TMR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Behavioral Neuroscience)

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26 pages, 1817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Bayesian Mixture Modelling of Stop Signal Reaction Time Distributions: The Second Contextual Solution for the Problem of Aftereffects of Inhibition on SSRT Estimations

by Mohsen Soltanifar, Michael Escobar, Annie Dupuis and Russell Schachar

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081102 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2874

Abstract

The distribution of single Stop Signal Reaction Times (SSRT) in the stop signal task (SST) has been modelled with two general methods: a nonparametric method by Hans Colonius (1990) and a Bayesian parametric method by Dora Matzke, Gordon Logan and colleagues (2013). These [...] Read more.

The distribution of single Stop Signal Reaction Times (SSRT) in the stop signal task (SST) has been modelled with two general methods: a nonparametric method by Hans Colonius (1990) and a Bayesian parametric method by Dora Matzke, Gordon Logan and colleagues (2013). These methods assume an equal impact of the preceding trial type (go/stop) in the SST trials on the SSRT distributional estimation without addressing the relaxed assumption. This study presents the required model by considering a two-state mixture model for the SSRT distribution. It then compares the Bayesian parametric single SSRT and mixture SSRT distributions in the usual stochastic order at the individual and the population level under ex-Gaussian (ExG) distributional format. It shows that compared to a single SSRT distribution, the mixture SSRT distribution is more varied, more positively skewed, more leptokurtic and larger in stochastic order. The size of the results’ disparities also depends on the choice of weights in the mixture SSRT distribution. This study confirms that mixture SSRT indices as a constant or distribution are significantly larger than their single SSRT counterparts in the related order. This result offers a vital improvement in the SSRT estimations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Collection on Theoretical and Computational Neuroscience)

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4 pages, 231 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Gender Perspective in Dual Diagnosis

by Marta Torrens-Melich, Teresa Orengo, Fernando Rodríguez de Fonseca, Isabel Almodóvar, Abel Baquero and Ana Benito

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1101; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081101 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2966

Abstract

Little data are available for women diagnosed with a dual diagnosis. However, dual diagnosis in women presents increased stigma, social penalties, and barriers to access to treatment than it does for men. Indeed, it increases the probability of suffering physical or sexual abuse, [...] Read more.

Little data are available for women diagnosed with a dual diagnosis. However, dual diagnosis in women presents increased stigma, social penalties, and barriers to access to treatment than it does for men. Indeed, it increases the probability of suffering physical or sexual abuse, violent victimization, gender-based violence, unemployment, social exclusion, social-role problems, and physical and psychiatric comorbidities. Thus, a transversal sex and gender-based perspective is required to adequately study and treat dual diagnosis. For this, sex and gender factors should be included in every scientific analysis; professionals should review their own prejudices and stereotypes and train themselves specifically from a gender perspective; administrations should design and provide specific treatment resources for women; and we could all contribute to a structural social transformation that goes beyond gender mandates and norms and reduces the risk of abuse and violence inflicted on women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sexual Differences in Addictions and Dual Disorders: Importance in Gender Perspective)

21 pages, 2599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

(Dys)Prosody in Parkinson’s Disease: Effects of Medication and Disease Duration on Intonation and Prosodic Phrasing

by Sónia Frota, Marisa Cruz, Rita Cardoso, Isabel Guimarães, Joaquim J. Ferreira, Serge Pinto and Marina Vigário

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1100; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081100 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2593

Abstract

The phonology of prosody has received little attention in studies of motor speech disorders. The present study investigates the phonology of intonation (nuclear contours) and speech chunking (prosodic phrasing) in Parkinson’s disease (PD) as a function of medication intake and duration of the [...] Read more.

The phonology of prosody has received little attention in studies of motor speech disorders. The present study investigates the phonology of intonation (nuclear contours) and speech chunking (prosodic phrasing) in Parkinson’s disease (PD) as a function of medication intake and duration of the disease. Following methods of the prosodic and intonational phonology frameworks, we examined the ability of 30 PD patients to use intonation categories and prosodic phrasing structures in ways similar to 20 healthy controls to convey similar meanings. Speech data from PD patients were collected before and after a dopaminomimetic drug intake and were phonologically analyzed in relation to nuclear contours and intonational phrasing. Besides medication, disease duration and the presence of motor fluctuations were also factors included in the analyses. Overall, PD patients showed a decreased ability to use nuclear contours and prosodic phrasing. Medication improved intonation regardless of disease duration but did not help with dysprosodic phrasing. In turn, disease duration and motor fluctuations affected phrasing patterns but had no impact on intonation. Our study demonstrated that the phonology of prosody is impaired in PD, and prosodic categories and structures may be differently affected, with implications for the understanding of PD neurophysiology and therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Speech Disorders and Prosody)

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13 pages, 3270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Existence of Interhemispheric Inhibition between Foot Sections of Human Primary Motor Cortices: Evidence from Negative Blood Oxygenation-Level Dependent Signal

by Eiichi Naito, Tomoyo Morita, Nodoka Kimura and Minoru Asada

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1099; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081099 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1915

Abstract

Interhemispheric inhibition (IHI) between the left and right primary motor cortices (M1) plays an important role when people perform an isolated unilateral limb movement. Moreover, negative blood oxygenation-level dependent signal (deactivation) obtained from the M1 ipsilateral to the limb could be a surrogate [...] Read more.

Interhemispheric inhibition (IHI) between the left and right primary motor cortices (M1) plays an important role when people perform an isolated unilateral limb movement. Moreover, negative blood oxygenation-level dependent signal (deactivation) obtained from the M1 ipsilateral to the limb could be a surrogate IHI marker. Studies have reported deactivation in the hand section of the ipsilateral M1 during simple unilateral hand movement. However, deactivation in the foot section during unilateral foot movement has not been reported. Therefore, IHI between the foot sections of the bilateral M1s has been considered very weak or absent. Thirty-seven healthy adults performed active control of the right foot and also passively received vibration to the tendon of the tibialis anterior muscle of the right foot, which activates the foot section of the contralateral M1, with brain activity being examined through functional magnetic resonance imaging. The vibration and active tasks significantly and non-significantly, respectively, deactivated the foot section of the ipsilateral M1, with a corresponding 86% and 60% of the participants showing decreased activity. Thus, there could be IHI between the foot sections of the bilateral M1s. Further, our findings demonstrate between-task differences and similarities in cross-somatotopic deactivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensory and Motor Neuroscience)

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15 pages, 624 KiB

Open AccessReview

Role of Vitamin E and the Orexin System in Neuroprotection

by Maria Ester La Torre, Ines Villano, Marcellino Monda, Antonietta Messina, Giuseppe Cibelli, Anna Valenzano, Daniela Pisanelli, Maria Antonietta Panaro, Nicola Tartaglia, Antonio Ambrosi, Marco Carotenuto, Vincenzo Monda, Giovanni Messina and Chiara Porro

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081098 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3468 | Correction

Abstract

Microglia are the first line of defense at the level of the central nervous system (CNS). Phenotypic change in microglia can be regulated by various factors, including the orexin system. Neuroinflammation is an inflammatory process mediated by cytokines, by the lack of interaction [...] Read more.

Microglia are the first line of defense at the level of the central nervous system (CNS). Phenotypic change in microglia can be regulated by various factors, including the orexin system. Neuroinflammation is an inflammatory process mediated by cytokines, by the lack of interaction between neurotransmitters and their specific receptors, caused by systemic tissue damage or, more often, associated with direct damage to the CNS. Chronic activation of microglia could lead to long-term neurodegenerative diseases. This review aims to explore how tocopherol (vitamin E) and the orexin system may play a role in the prevention and treatment of microglia inflammation and, consequently, in neurodegenerative diseases thanks to its antioxidant properties. The results of animal and in vitro studies provide evidence to support the use of tocopherol for a reduction in microglia inflammation as well as a greater activation of the orexinergic system. Although there is much in vivo and in vitro evidence of vitamin E antioxidant and protective abilities, there are still conflicting results for its use as a treatment for neurodegenerative diseases that speculate that vitamin E, under certain conditions or genetic predispositions, can be pro-oxidant and harmful. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection and Oxidative Distress)

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14 pages, 2079 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Aquatic Exercise and Land-Based Exercise on Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Motor Function, Balance, and Functional Independence in Stroke Patients—A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

by Daxin Li and Ping Chen

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1097; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081097 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of aquatic exercise (AE) and land-based exercise (LE) on cardiorespiratory fitness, motor function, balance, and functional independence in stroke patients. Design: Through searching PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, CNKI, VIP and [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of aquatic exercise (AE) and land-based exercise (LE) on cardiorespiratory fitness, motor function, balance, and functional independence in stroke patients. Design: Through searching PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, CNKI, VIP and Wanfang Database, only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were collected to study the effects of AE and LE on cardiorespiratory fitness, motor function, balance, and functional independence in patients with stroke. The included studies were evaluated for methodological quality by the Cochrane bias risk assessment tool, and statistical analysis was carried out by the Review Manage 5.3 and Stata 15.1 software. Results: The RCTs were collected between the earliest available date and April 2021. Eleven RCTs were included, including five studies with low risk and six studies with moderate risk. The total sample size used in the study was 369, which included 187 patients undertaking AE and 182 patients undertaking LE. The results of the meta-analysis showed that AE can significantly improve patients’ Berg Balance Scale (BBS) (MD = 5.19, 95% CI: 2.66 to 7.71, p < 0.0001), peak oxygen uptake (VO₂peak) (MD = 3.49, 95% CI: 0.17 to 6.8, p = 0.04), Fugl–Meyer Assessment (FMA) (MD = 3.84, 95% CI: 1.64 to 6.04, p = 0.0006), and Functional Independence Measure (FIM) (MD = 6.1, 95% CI: 4.05 to 8.15, p < 0.00001). However, there was no statistically significant difference between the two exercise modes in the Timed Up and Go Test (TUGT) (MD = −2.52, 95% CI: −5.95 to 0.91, p = 0.15) or the Functional Ambulation Category scale (FAC) (MD = 0.28, 95% CI: −0.21 to 0.76, p = 0.26). Conclusion: Based on the improvement in the Berg Balance Scale, peak oxygen uptake, Fugl–Meyer Assessment, and Functional Independence Measure, we can state that aquatic exercise offers better advantages than land-based exercise for patients’ balance, motor function, cardiorespiratory fitness, and functional independence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Neurorehabilitation)

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17 pages, 556 KiB

Open AccessReview

Neural Representation of Costs and Rewards in Decision Making

by Yixuan Chen

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1096; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081096 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3239

Abstract

Decision making is crucial for animal survival because the choices they make based on their current situation could influence their future rewards and could have potential costs. This review summarises recent developments in decision making, discusses how rewards and costs could be encoded [...] Read more.

Decision making is crucial for animal survival because the choices they make based on their current situation could influence their future rewards and could have potential costs. This review summarises recent developments in decision making, discusses how rewards and costs could be encoded in the brain, and how different options are compared such that the most optimal one is chosen. The reward and cost are mainly encoded by the forebrain structures (e.g., anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex), and their value is updated through learning. The recent development on dopamine and the lateral habenula’s role in reporting prediction errors and instructing learning will be emphasised. The importance of dopamine in powering the choice and accounting for the internal state will also be discussed. While the orbitofrontal cortex is the place where the state values are stored, the anterior cingulate cortex is more important when the environment is volatile. All of these structures compare different attributes of the task simultaneously, and the local competition of different neuronal networks allows for the selection of the most appropriate one. Therefore, the total value of the task is not encoded as a scalar quantity in the brain but, instead, as an emergent phenomenon, arising from the computation at different brain regions. Full article

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19 pages, 707 KiB

Open AccessReview

Motor Learning Based on Oscillatory Brain Activity Using Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation: A Review

by Naoyuki Takeuchi and Shin-Ichi Izumi

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1095; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081095 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3582

Abstract

Developing effective tools and strategies to promote motor learning is a high-priority scientific and clinical goal. In particular, motor-related areas have been investigated as potential targets to facilitate motor learning by noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS). In addition to shedding light on the relationship [...] Read more.

Developing effective tools and strategies to promote motor learning is a high-priority scientific and clinical goal. In particular, motor-related areas have been investigated as potential targets to facilitate motor learning by noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS). In addition to shedding light on the relationship between motor function and oscillatory brain activity, transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), which can noninvasively entrain oscillatory brain activity and modulate oscillatory brain communication, has attracted attention as a possible technique to promote motor learning. This review focuses on the use of tACS to enhance motor learning through the manipulation of oscillatory brain activity and its potential clinical applications. We discuss a potential tACS–based approach to ameliorate motor deficits by correcting abnormal oscillatory brain activity and promoting appropriate oscillatory communication in patients after stroke or with Parkinson’s disease. Interpersonal tACS approaches to manipulate intra- and inter-brain communication may result in pro-social effects and could promote the teaching–learning process during rehabilitation sessions with a therapist. The approach of re-establishing oscillatory brain communication through tACS could be effective for motor recovery and might eventually drive the design of new neurorehabilitation approaches based on motor learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Management of Movement Disorder)

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16 pages, 1894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Informal Caregivers in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Multi-Centre, Exploratory Study of Burden and Difficulties

by Éilís Conroy, Polly Kennedy, Mark Heverin, Iracema Leroi, Emily Mayberry, Anita Beelen, Theocharis Stavroulakis, Leonard H. van den Berg, Christopher J. McDermott, Orla Hardiman and Miriam Galvin

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1094; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081094 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3359

Abstract

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)/motor neuron disease (MND) is a systemic and fatal neurodegenerative condition for which there is currently no cure. Informal caregivers play a vital role in supporting the person with ALS, and it is essential to support their wellbeing. This multi-centre, [...] Read more.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)/motor neuron disease (MND) is a systemic and fatal neurodegenerative condition for which there is currently no cure. Informal caregivers play a vital role in supporting the person with ALS, and it is essential to support their wellbeing. This multi-centre, mixed methods descriptive exploratory study describes the complexity of burden and self-defined difficulties as described by the caregivers themselves. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected during face-to-face interviews with informal caregivers from centres in the Netherlands, England, and Ireland. Standardised measures assessed burden, quality of life, and psychological distress; furthermore, an open-ended question was asked about difficult aspects of caregiving. Most caregivers were female, spouse/partners, and lived with the person with ALS for whom they provided care. Significant differences between national cohorts were identified for burden, quality of life, and anxiety. Among the difficulties described were the practical issues associated with the caregiver role and emotional factors such as witnessing a patient’s health decline, relationship change, and their own distress. The mixed-methods approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of the burden and difficulties experienced. It is important to generate an evidence base to support the psychosocial wellbeing and brain health of informal caregivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Caregiver Burden in Movement Disorders and Neurodegenerative Diseases)

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12 pages, 5445 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Noninvasive Optical Monitoring of Cerebral Blood Flow and EEG Spectral Responses after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A Case Report

by Chien-Sing Poon, Benjamin Rinehart, Dharminder S. Langri, Timothy M. Rambo, Aaron J. Miller, Brandon Foreman and Ulas Sunar

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1093; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081093 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3188

Abstract

Survivors of severe brain injury may require care in a neurointensive care unit (neuro-ICU), where the brain is vulnerable to secondary brain injury. Thus, there is a need for noninvasive, bedside, continuous cerebral blood flow monitoring approaches in the neuro-ICU. Our goal is [...] Read more.

Survivors of severe brain injury may require care in a neurointensive care unit (neuro-ICU), where the brain is vulnerable to secondary brain injury. Thus, there is a need for noninvasive, bedside, continuous cerebral blood flow monitoring approaches in the neuro-ICU. Our goal is to address this need through combined measurements of EEG and functional optical spectroscopy (EEG-Optical) instrumentation and analysis to provide a complementary fusion of data about brain activity and function. We utilized the diffuse correlation spectroscopy method for assessing cerebral blood flow at the neuro-ICU in a patient with traumatic brain injury. The present case demonstrates the feasibility of continuous recording of noninvasive cerebral blood flow transients that correlated well with the gold-standard invasive measurements and with the frequency content changes in the EEG data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Neurotechnology and Neuroimaging)

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11 pages, 1584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mirror Visual Feedback Induces M1 Excitability by Disengaging Functional Connections of Perceptuo-Motor-Attentional Processes during Asynchronous Bimanual Movement: A Magnetoencephalographic Study

by Szu-Hung Lin, Chia-Hsiung Cheng, Ching-Yi Wu, Chien-Ting Liu, Chia-Ling Chen and Yu-Wei Hsieh

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1092; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081092 - 20 Aug 2021

Viewed by 2219

Abstract

Mirror visual feedback (MVF) has been shown to increase the excitability of the primary motor cortex (M1) during asynchronous bimanual movement. However, the functional networks underlying this process remain unclear. We recruited 16 healthy volunteers to perform asynchronous bimanual movement, that is, their [...] Read more.

Mirror visual feedback (MVF) has been shown to increase the excitability of the primary motor cortex (M1) during asynchronous bimanual movement. However, the functional networks underlying this process remain unclear. We recruited 16 healthy volunteers to perform asynchronous bimanual movement, that is, their left hand performed partial range of movement while their right hand performed normal full range of movement. Their ongoing brain activities were recorded by whole-head magnetoencephalography during the movement. Participants were required to keep both hands stationary in the control condition. In the other two conditions, participants were required to perform asynchronous bimanual movement with MVF (Asy_M) and without MVF (Asy_w/oM). Greater M1 excitability was found under Asy_M than under Asy_w/oM. More importantly, when receiving MVF, the visual cortex reduced its functional connection to brain regions associated with perceptuo-motor-attentional process (i.e., M1, superior temporal gyrus, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). This is the first study to demonstrate a global functional network of MVF during asynchronous bimanual movement, providing a foundation for future research to examine the neural mechanisms of mirror illusion in motor control. Full article

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10 pages, 500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reduction of Sniff Nasal Inspiratory Pressure (SNIP) as an Early Indicator of the Need of Enteral Nutrition in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

by Stefano Zoccolella, Rosa Capozzo, Vitaliano N. Quaranta, Giorgio Castellana, Lorenzo Marra, Vito Liotino, Vincenza Giorgio, Isabella L. Simone, Onofrio Resta, Marco Piccininni, Rosanna Tortelli and Giancarlo Logroscino

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1091; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081091 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2228

Abstract

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is the standard procedure for feeding severely dysphagic patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It is associated with prolonged survival and improvement in quality of life. Nasal inspiratory pressure during a sniff (SNIP) is a respiratory test used extensively [...] Read more.

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is the standard procedure for feeding severely dysphagic patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It is associated with prolonged survival and improvement in quality of life. Nasal inspiratory pressure during a sniff (SNIP) is a respiratory test used extensively in ALS for the assessment of inspiratory muscle strength. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of SNIP at baseline to predict PEG placement in ALS. Data from a clinical incident cohort of 179 ALS cases attending the multidisciplinary ALS unit of the University of Bari between April 2006 and December 2012 were retrospectively analysed. At baseline, patients underwent detailed neurological, nutritional and respiratory assessments, including measurements of SNIP and forced vital capacity (FVC). Patients were therefore followed up approximately every three to six months until they were able to attend the centre. The censoring date for the survival analysis was 15 April 2014, with PEG placement as the main outcome. Cox proportional hazard regression models were used to examine the association between SNIP and PEG placement, adjusted for possible confounders. During the follow-up period, 75 participants (42%) received PEG implant. PEG placement was more frequent (57% vs. 31%; p = 0.001) and earlier (after 11.6 ± 14.0 months from the first visit, vs. 23.3 ± 15.5 months; p < 0.0001) in the group of patients with baseline SNIP ≤ 40 cm H₂O. Baseline SNIP was a predictor of PEG placement even after correction for multiple potential confounders (HR 0.98; 95% CI: 0.96–0.99; p = 0.02). To conclude, the present study showed that SNIP at baseline is an early indicator of disease progression and therefore of the need for enteral nutrition in ALS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Neuromuscular and Movement Disorders)

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17 pages, 760 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Age-Related Effect of Sleepiness on Driving Performance: A Systematic-Review

by Serena Scarpelli, Valentina Alfonsi, Maurizio Gorgoni, Milena Camaioni, Anna Maria Giannini and Luigi De Gennaro

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081090 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2633

Abstract

Background: Several studies highlighted that sleepiness affects driving abilities. In particular, road traffic injuries due to excessive daytime sleepiness are about 10–20%. Considering that aging is related to substantial sleep changes and the number of older adults with driving license is increasing, the [...] Read more.

Background: Several studies highlighted that sleepiness affects driving abilities. In particular, road traffic injuries due to excessive daytime sleepiness are about 10–20%. Considering that aging is related to substantial sleep changes and the number of older adults with driving license is increasing, the current review aims to summarize recent studies on this issue. Further, we intend to provide insights for future research. Methods: From the 717 records screened, ten articles were selected and systematically reviewed. Results: Among the selected articles, (a) five studies investigated sleepiness only by self-reported standardized measures; (b) two studies assessed sleepiness also using a behavioral task; (c) three studies obtained objective measures by electroencephalographic recordings. Conclusions: The available literature on the topic reports several limitations. Overall, many findings converge in evidencing that older drivers are less vulnerable to sleep loss and sleepiness-related driving impairments than young adults. These discrepancies in sleepiness vulnerability between age groups may be ascribed to differences in subjects’ lifestyles. Moreover, it has been hypothesized that older adults self-regulate their driving and avoid specific dangerous situations. We believe that an easy protocol to objectively evaluate the vigilance level in elderly and young adults is required, and further studies are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sleep in Healthy and Pathological Aging)

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14 pages, 1141 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heartbeat-Evoked Cortical Potential during Sleep and Interoceptive Sensitivity: A Matter of Hypnotizability

by Lucia Billeci, Ugo Faraguna, Enrica L. Santarcangelo, Paola d’Ascanio, Maurizio Varanini and Laura Sebastiani

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081089 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2433

Abstract

Individuals with different hypnotizability display different interoceptive sensitivity/awareness (IS) and accuracy (IA), likely sustained by morphofunctional differences in interoception-related brain regions and, thus, possibly also observable during sleep. We investigated the heartbeat-evoked cortical potential amplitude (HEP) during sleep, its association with IS, and [...] Read more.

Individuals with different hypnotizability display different interoceptive sensitivity/awareness (IS) and accuracy (IA), likely sustained by morphofunctional differences in interoception-related brain regions and, thus, possibly also observable during sleep. We investigated the heartbeat-evoked cortical potential amplitude (HEP) during sleep, its association with IS, and the role of hypnotizability in such association. We performed a retrospective analysis of polysomnographic recordings of 39 healthy volunteers. Participants completed the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA), measuring IS and IA, and underwent hypnotic assessment via the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, form A. The amplitude of the early and late HEP components was computed at EEG frontal and central sites. In both regions, the early HEP component was larger in N3 than in N2 and REM, with no difference between N2 and REM. Greater HEP amplitude at frontal than at central sites was found for the late HEP component. HEP amplitudes were not influenced by the autonomic state assessed by heart rate variability in the frequency and time domains. We report for the first time a positive correlation between the central late HEP component and MAIA dimensions, which became non-significant after removing the effects of hypnotizability. Our findings indicate that hypnotizability sustains the correlation between IS and HEP amplitude during sleep. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research in Hypnotizability)

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14 pages, 762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Susceptibility or Diathesis-Stress: Testing the Moderating Role of Temperament and Cortisol Levels between Fathers’ Parenting and Children’s Aggressive Behavior

by Eider Pascual-Sagastizabal, Nora del Puerto-Golzarri and Aitziber Azurmendi

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081088 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2751

Abstract

Aggression is a multidimensional behavior that could be caused by different biopsychosocial variables. The aim of this study was to explore whether temperament, cortisol and sex moderate the relation between fathers’ parenting style and aggressive behavior in school-aged children, and whether this corresponds [...] Read more.

Aggression is a multidimensional behavior that could be caused by different biopsychosocial variables. The aim of this study was to explore whether temperament, cortisol and sex moderate the relation between fathers’ parenting style and aggressive behavior in school-aged children, and whether this corresponds to differential susceptibility or diathesis-stress. Participants were 158 children (88 boys and 70 girls) aged 8 years. Aggressive behavior was measured using the Direct and Indirect Aggression Scale and fathers informed about their child’s temperament and their own parenting style through the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire and the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (respectively). Children’s’ baseline saliva cortisol levels were analyzed through an enzyme immunoassay technique. The results revealed that high cortisol levels moderated the relation between fathers’ low levels of authoritative parenting and boys’ aggression. Moreover, high negative emotionality moderated the relation between permissive paternal parenting and girls’ aggressive behavior, with both these relations being consistent with the diathesis-stress theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dimensions of Pathological Aggression: From Neurobiology to Therapy)

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12 pages, 266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Profiles of eHealth Adoption in Persons with Multiple Sclerosis and Their Caregivers

by Rocco Haase, Isabel Voigt, Maria Scholz, Hannes Schlieter, Martin Benedict, Marcel Susky, Anja Dillenseger and Tjalf Ziemssen

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081087 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2721

Abstract

(1) Background: Persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) are often characterized as ideal adopters of new digital healthcare trends, but it is worth thinking about whether and which pwMS will be targeted and served by a particular eHealth service like a patient portal. With [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) are often characterized as ideal adopters of new digital healthcare trends, but it is worth thinking about whether and which pwMS will be targeted and served by a particular eHealth service like a patient portal. With our study, we wanted to explore needs and barriers for subgroups of pwMS and their caregivers when interacting with eHealth services in care and daily living. (2) Methods: This study comprises results from two surveys: one collecting data from pwMS and their relatives (as informal caregivers) and another one providing information on the opinions and attitudes of healthcare professionals (HCPs). Data were analyzed descriptively and via generalized linear models. (3) Results: 185 pwMS, 25 informal caregivers, and 24 HCPs in the field of MS participated. Nine out of ten pwMS used information technology on a daily base. Individual impairments like in vision and cognition resulted in individual needs like the desire to actively monitor their disease course or communicate with their physician in person. HCPs reported that a complete medication overview, additional medication information, overview of future visits and a reminder of medication intake would be very helpful eHealth features for pwMS, while they themselves preferred features organizing and enriching future visits. (4) Conclusions: A closer look at the various profiles of eHealth adoption in pwMS and their caregivers indicated that there is a broad and robust enthusiasm across several subgroups that does not exclude anyone in general, but constitutes specific areas of interest. For pwMS, the focus was on eHealth services that connect previously collected information and make them easily accessible and understandable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Innovation in Multiple Sclerosis Management)

19 pages, 4066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neuroplasticity within and between Functional Brain Networks in Mental Training Based on Long-Term Meditation

by Roberto Guidotti, Cosimo Del Gratta, Mauro Gianni Perrucci, Gian Luca Romani and Antonino Raffone

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081086 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5449

Abstract

(1) The effects of intensive mental training based on meditation on the functional and structural organization of the human brain have been addressed by several neuroscientific studies. However, how large-scale connectivity patterns are affected by long-term practice of the main forms of meditation, [...] Read more.

(1) The effects of intensive mental training based on meditation on the functional and structural organization of the human brain have been addressed by several neuroscientific studies. However, how large-scale connectivity patterns are affected by long-term practice of the main forms of meditation, Focused Attention (FA) and Open Monitoring (OM), as well as by aging, has not yet been elucidated. (2) Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and multivariate pattern analysis, we investigated the impact of meditation expertise and age on functional connectivity patterns in large-scale brain networks during different meditation styles in long-term meditators. (3) The results show that fMRI connectivity patterns in multiple key brain networks can differentially predict the meditation expertise and age of long-term meditators. Expertise-predictive patterns are differently affected by FA and OM, while age-predictive patterns are not influenced by the meditation form. The FA meditation connectivity pattern modulated by expertise included nodes and connections implicated in focusing, sustaining and monitoring attention, while OM patterns included nodes associated with cognitive control and emotion regulation. (4) The study highlights a long-term effect of meditation practice on multivariate patterns of functional brain connectivity and suggests that meditation expertise is associated with specific neuroplastic changes in connectivity patterns within and between multiple brain networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Neuropsychology)

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16 pages, 3532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Maternal Immune Activation Causes Social Behavior Deficits and Hypomyelination in Male Rat Offspring with an Autism-Like Microbiota Profile

by Gilbert Aaron Lee, Yen-Kuang Lin, Jing-Huei Lai, Yu-Chun Lo, Yu-Chen S. H. Yang, Syuan-You Ye, Chia-Jung Lee, Ching-Chiung Wang, Yung-Hsiao Chiang and Sung-Hui Tseng

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081085 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5012

Abstract

Maternal immune activation (MIA) increases the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring. Microbial dysbiosis is associated with ASD symptoms. However, the alterations in the brain–gut–microbiota axis in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced MIA offspring remain unclear. Here, we examined the social behavior, anxiety-like and [...] Read more.

Maternal immune activation (MIA) increases the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring. Microbial dysbiosis is associated with ASD symptoms. However, the alterations in the brain–gut–microbiota axis in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced MIA offspring remain unclear. Here, we examined the social behavior, anxiety-like and repetitive behavior, microbiota profile, and myelination levels in LPS-induced MIA rat offspring. Compared with control offspring, MIA male rat offspring spent less time in an active social interaction with stranger rats, displayed more anxiety-like and repetitive behavior, and had more hypomyelination in the prefrontal cortex and thalamic nucleus. A fecal microbiota analysis revealed that MIA offspring had a higher abundance of Alistipes, Fusobacterium, and Ruminococcus and a lower abundance of Coprococcus, Erysipelotrichaies, and Actinobacteria than control offspring, which is consistent with that of humans with ASD. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) method was applied to determine the relative importance of the microbiota, which indicated that the abundance of Alistipes and Actinobacteria was the most relevant for the profile of defective social behavior, whereas Fusobacterium and Coprococcus was associated with anxiety-like and repetitive behavior. In summary, LPS-induced MIA offspring showed an abnormal brain–gut–microbiota axis with social behavior deficits, anxiety-like and repetitive behavior, hypomyelination, and an ASD-like microbiota profile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Emerging Translational Research in Neurological and Psychiatric Diseases: From In Vitro to In Vivo Models)

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11 pages, 304 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Rebuilding Body–Brain Interaction from the Vagal Network in Spinal Cord Injuries

by Maria Luisa De Martino, Mina De Bartolo, Erik Leemhuis and Mariella Pazzaglia

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081084 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4118

Abstract

Spinal cord injuries (SCIs) exert devastating effects on body awareness, leading to the disruption of the transmission of sensory and motor inputs. Researchers have attempted to improve perceived body awareness post-SCI by intervening at the multisensory level, with the integration of somatic sensory [...] Read more.

Spinal cord injuries (SCIs) exert devastating effects on body awareness, leading to the disruption of the transmission of sensory and motor inputs. Researchers have attempted to improve perceived body awareness post-SCI by intervening at the multisensory level, with the integration of somatic sensory and motor signals. However, the contributions of interoceptive-visceral inputs, particularly the potential interaction of motor and interoceptive signals, remain largely unaddressed. The present perspective aims to shed light on the use of interoceptive signals as a significant resource for patients with SCI to experience a complete sense of body awareness. First, we describe interoceptive signals as a significant obstacle preventing such patients from experiencing body awareness. Second, we discuss the multi-level mechanisms associated with the homeostatic stability of the body, which creates a unified, coherent experience of one’s self and one’s body, including real-time updates. Body awareness can be enhanced by targeting the vagus nerve function by, for example, applying transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation. This perspective offers a potentially useful insight for researchers and healthcare professionals, allowing them to be better equipped in SCI therapy. This will lead to improved sensory motor and interoceptive signals, a decreased likelihood of developing deafferentation pain, and the successful implementation of modern robotic technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Behavioral Neuroscience)

12 pages, 1200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Commercial Brain Training: Efficacy, Transfer Effects, and the Influence of Personality Traits: A Study Conducted on Healthy Young Adults

by Florian Scholl, Sören Enge and Matti Gärtner

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081083 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2655

Abstract

In the present study, we investigated the effects of a four-week working memory (WM) and attention training program using commercial brain training (Synaptikon GmbH, Berlin). Sixty young healthy adults were assigned to the experimental and active control training programs. The training was conducted [...] Read more.

In the present study, we investigated the effects of a four-week working memory (WM) and attention training program using commercial brain training (Synaptikon GmbH, Berlin). Sixty young healthy adults were assigned to the experimental and active control training programs. The training was conducted in a naturalistic home-based setting, while the pre- and post-examinations were conducted in a controlled laboratory setting. Transfer effects to an untrained WM task and to an untrained episodic memory task were examined. Furthermore, possible influences of personality, i.e., the five-factor model (FFM) traits and need for cognition (NFC), on training outcomes were examined. Additionally, the direct relationship between improvement in single trained tasks and improvement in the transfer tasks was investigated. Our results showed that both training groups significantly increased performance in the WM task, but only the WM training group increased their performance in the episodic memory transfer task. One of the training tasks, a visuospatial WM task, was particularly associated with improvement in the episodic memory task. Neuroticism and conscientiousness showed differential effects on the improvement in training and transfer tasks. It needs to be further examined whether these effects represent training effects or, for example, retest/practice or motivation effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurofunctional and Neurochemical Signatures of Emotional and Cognitive Processes and Competencies)

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13 pages, 608 KiB

Open AccessHypothesis

Functional Cognitive Disorders (FCD): How Is Metacognition Involved?

by Andrew J. Larner

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(8), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081082 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3235

Abstract

Functional cognitive disorders (FCD) have become a subject of increasing clinical interest in recent years, in part because of their high prevalence amongst patients attending dedicated memory clinics. Empirical understanding of FCD based on observational studies is growing, suggesting a relationship to other [...] Read more.

Functional cognitive disorders (FCD) have become a subject of increasing clinical interest in recent years, in part because of their high prevalence amongst patients attending dedicated memory clinics. Empirical understanding of FCD based on observational studies is growing, suggesting a relationship to other functional neurological disorders (FND) based on shared phenomenology. However, understanding of FCD at the theoretical level has been lacking. One suggestion has been that FCD are disorders of metacognition, most usually of metamemory. In this article, a brief overview of these constructs is presented along with existing evidence for their impairment in FCD. Previous adaptations of theoretical models of FND to accommodate FCD are reviewed. A novel application to FCD of Nelson and Narens’ monitoring and control model of metamemory is then attempted, positing an improper setting of the monitoring function, with examples of ecological relevance. Formulation of FCD in light of a metacognitive model of anosognosia is also considered. Although lacking mechanistic and neuroanatomical sophistication, this metacognitive formulation of FCD may give pointers for future hypothesis-driven research and a pragmatic basis for management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metacognition and Symptom Awareness in Dementia and Other Cognitive Disorders)

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