Pathogens

11 pages, 2573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laboratory Culture and Life Cycle of Thelazia callipaeda in Intermediate and Definitive Hosts

by Lingjun Wang, Di Li, Changzhu Yin, Hongri Tang, Bo Luo, Rong Yan, Yujuan Shen and Hui Liu

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1066; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091066 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2127

Abstract

Human thelaziasis caused by Thelazia callipaeda is being increasingly reported worldwide. Notably, an epidemic trend is observed in Southwest China. Whether Phortica okadai found in Southwest China can act as a vector of T. callipaeda and human-derived T. callipaeda animal infections has not [...] Read more.

Human thelaziasis caused by Thelazia callipaeda is being increasingly reported worldwide. Notably, an epidemic trend is observed in Southwest China. Whether Phortica okadai found in Southwest China can act as a vector of T. callipaeda and human-derived T. callipaeda animal infections has not been widely reported. Here, P. okadai was maintained in a laboratory and experimentally infected with first-stage larvae collected from adult T. callipaeda that were isolated from infected human subjects. Dead P. okadai were subjected to PCR assay and dissected every two days to detect T. callipaeda. Subsequently, live flies were used to infect a rabbit. The infection procedures were performed once a day (20 min) for two weeks. The results show that L1 collected from the adult T. callipaeda could successfully parasitize P. okadai captured in Zunyi, a city in Southwest China, and developed into L3, and a rabbit was successfully infected with T. callipaeda using P. okadai as the intermediate host. The present study demonstrates a human-derived T. callipaeda infection in rabbits, through P. okadai, under laboratory conditions for the first time. These results provide insights into the transmission cycle of T. callipaeda and constitute a foundation to develop an effective treatment protocol for T. callipaeda infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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Graphical abstract

16 pages, 1948 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effects of Allium sativum L., Artemisia absinthium L., Cucurbita pepo L., Coriandrum sativum L., Satureja hortensis L. and Calendula officinalis L. on the Embryogenesis of Ascaris suum Eggs during an In Vitro Experimental Study

by Mihai-Horia Băieş, Călin Gherman, Zsolt Boros, Diana Olah, Ana-Maria Vlase, Anamaria Cozma-Petruț, Adriana Györke, Doina Miere, Laurian Vlase, Gianina Crișan, Marina Spînu and Vasile Cozma

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091065 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3255

Abstract

Ascaris suum is present in traditionally managed indoor pig herds and in industrialized farms, especially in older fatteners and sows. The increasing resistance to common antihelminthic drugs redirected research towards alternative and traditional therapies, which also include medicinal plants. This study comparatively evaluated [...] Read more.

Ascaris suum is present in traditionally managed indoor pig herds and in industrialized farms, especially in older fatteners and sows. The increasing resistance to common antihelminthic drugs redirected research towards alternative and traditional therapies, which also include medicinal plants. This study comparatively evaluated the in vitro antiparasitic effects of Allium sativum L., Artemisia absinthium L., Cucurbita pepo L., Coriandrum sativum L., Satureja hortensis L. and Calendula officinalis L. against A. suum egg hatching and larval development. A. suum eggs were sampled from randomized fecal specimens collected from traditionally raised swine. The egg suspension (ES, 12 × 10³/mL) was divided into two controls (C) (1C—1 mL ES + 1 mL distilled water, 2C—five plates of 1 mL ES + 1 mL ethanol of 70%, 35%, 17.5%, 8.75%, and 4.375%, respectively) and six experimental groups, and placed in 3 mL cell plates. The experimental groups (EG, 1–6) included ES + each alcoholic plant extract (10%, 5%, 2.5%, 1.25%, 0.625%). Both C and EG were performed in quintuplicate. All variants were incubated at 27 °C for a total of 21 days. A. suum eggs were examined after 2, 14 (L1), and 21 (L2/L3) days of incubation. The efficacy of all tested plant extracts increased with concentration. Anti-embryogenic effects on A. suum eggs were expressed by all plants. A superior influence was observed in A. sativum L., A. absinthium L., C. pepo L. and S. hortensis L. extracts, at all concentrations tested. A. sativum L. and A. absinthium L. extracts showed the strongest antihelminthic activity, while C. sativum L. and C. officinalis L. were the weakest ascaricids. Future in-depth phytochemical studies are required to identify the compounds responsible for the anthelminthic properties of these plant species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Parasites Infection)

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11 pages, 613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Application of Real-Time PCR and CDC Protocol May Significantly Reduce the Incidence of Streptococcus agalactiae Infections among Neonates

by Tomasz Bogiel, Szymon Ziółkowski, Alicja Domian and Zuzanna Dobrzyńska

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091064 - 19 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1872

Abstract

Streptococcus agalactiae is an important human opportunistic pathogen, especially infectious for pregnant women and neonates. This pathogen belongs to beta hemolytic Streptococcus spp. representatives and accounts for a significant part of early infections in newborns, including serious life-threatening infections. This research investigated the [...] Read more.

Streptococcus agalactiae is an important human opportunistic pathogen, especially infectious for pregnant women and neonates. This pathogen belongs to beta hemolytic Streptococcus spp. representatives and accounts for a significant part of early infections in newborns, including serious life-threatening infections. This research investigated the usefulness of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) protocol for S. agalactiae DNA detection in 250 samples of recto-vaginal swabs collected from pregnant women (at 35-37 weeks of gestation) and pre-cultured overnight in liquid medium. With an application of the CDC protocol-based real-time PCR, the cfb gene was detected in 68 (27.2%) samples compared to 41 (16.4%) for the standard culture-based methodology. The applied molecular method presented high sensitivity (100.0%) and specificity (87.1%). Therefore, it allowed for more precise detection of S. agalactiae bacteria, compared to the reference diagnostic method, culture on solid media with the following strain identification. The increased sensitivity of GBS detection may result in a reduced number of infections in newborns and leads to more targeted antimicrobial prophylaxis therapy of GBS infections in pregnant women. In addition, the use of the molecular method allows for a significant reduction in the time needed to obtain a result for GBS detection, and interpretation of the results is relatively simple. Therefore, it enables a faster intervention in case of a necessity of an antibiotic therapy introduction in pregnant women whose GBS status is unknown at the time of delivery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)

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11 pages, 915 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Respiratory Commensal Bacteria Increase Protection against Hypermucoviscous Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae ST25 Infection

by Stefania Dentice Maidana, Ramiro Ortiz Moyano, Juan Martin Vargas, Kohtaro Fukuyama, Shoichiro Kurata, Vyacheslav Melnikov, María Ángela Jure, Haruki Kitazawa and Julio Villena

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091063 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1680

Abstract

In a previous work, we demonstrated that nasally administered Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum 090104 beneficially modulated the respiratory innate immune response and improved the protection against Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice. In this work, we aimed to evaluate whether the immunomodulatory 090104 [...] Read more.

In a previous work, we demonstrated that nasally administered Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum 090104 beneficially modulated the respiratory innate immune response and improved the protection against Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice. In this work, we aimed to evaluate whether the immunomodulatory 090104 strain was able to enhance the resistance against the respiratory infection induced by hypermucoviscous carbapenemase-producing (KPC-2) Klebsiella pneumoniae strains belonging to the sequence type (ST) 25. The nasal treatment of mice with C. pseudodiphtheriticum 090104 before the challenge with multiresistant K. pneumoniae ST25 strains significantly reduced lung bacterial cell counts and lung tissue damage. The protective effect of the 090104 strain was related to its ability to regulate the respiratory innate immune response triggered by K. pneumoniae challenge. C. pseudifteriticum 090104 differentially modulated the recruitment of leukocytes into the lung and the production of TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-10 levels in the respiratory tract and serum. Our results make an advance in the positioning of C. pseudodiphtheriticum 090104 as a next-generation probiotic for the respiratory tract and encourage further research of this bacterium as a promising alternative to develop non-antibiotic therapeutical approaches to enhance the prevention of infections produced by microorganisms with multiple resistance to antimicrobials such as KPC-2-producing hypermucoviscous K. pneumoniae strains belonging to ST25. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

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15 pages, 2912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Veterinary Antibiotics via Food Chain Disrupts Gut Microbiota and Drives Increased Escherichia coli Virulence and Drug Resistance in Young Adults

by Yehao Liu, Yifan Wu, Jie Wu, Xin Li, Lingling Yu, Ke Xie, Mingyi Zhang, Lingling Ren, Yanli Ji and Yuhui Li

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091062 - 18 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1864

Abstract

Exposure to veterinary antibiotics (VAs) and preferred as veterinary antibiotics (PVAs) via the food chain is unavoidable for their extensive use not only for treating bacterial infections, but also for use as growth promoters in livestock and aquaculture. One of the consequences is [...] Read more.

Exposure to veterinary antibiotics (VAs) and preferred as veterinary antibiotics (PVAs) via the food chain is unavoidable for their extensive use not only for treating bacterial infections, but also for use as growth promoters in livestock and aquaculture. One of the consequences is the disturbance of gut microbiota. However, its impact on the virulence and drug resistance of opportunistic pathogens is still unclear. In this study, a total of 26 antibiotics were detected in the urine of 300 young undergraduates in Anhui Province. We found that excessive intake of milk was positively correlated to high levels of VAs and PVAs. It led to the dysbiosis of gut microbiota characterized by high abundance of Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria. The increase in Proteobacteria was mainly due to a single operational taxonomic unit (OTU) of Escherichia coli (E. coli). We isolated several E. coli strains from participants and compared their drug resistance and virulence using PCR assay and virulence-related assays. We observed that exposure to high levels of VAs and PVAs induced more resistant genes and drove E. coli strain to become more virulent. At last, we conducted transcriptome analysis to investigate the molecular mechanism of virulent and drug-resistant regulators in the highly virulent E. coli strain. We noted that there were multiple pathways involved in the drug resistance and virulence of the highly virulent strain. Our results demonstrated that participants with high-level VAs and PVAs exposure have a disrupted gut microbiota following the appearance of highly drug-resistant and virulent E. coli and, therefore may be at elevated risk for long-term health complications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

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20 pages, 1538 KiB

Open AccessReview

How to Inhibit Nuclear Factor-Kappa B Signaling: Lessons from Poxviruses

by Joshua B. Reus, Emily A. Rex and Don B. Gammon

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091061 - 18 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1804

Abstract

The Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) family of transcription factors regulates key host inflammatory and antiviral gene expression programs, and thus, is often activated during viral infection through the action of pattern-recognition receptors and cytokine–receptor interactions. In turn, many viral pathogens encode strategies to [...] Read more.

The Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) family of transcription factors regulates key host inflammatory and antiviral gene expression programs, and thus, is often activated during viral infection through the action of pattern-recognition receptors and cytokine–receptor interactions. In turn, many viral pathogens encode strategies to manipulate and/or inhibit NF-κB signaling. This is particularly exemplified by vaccinia virus (VV), the prototypic poxvirus, which encodes at least 18 different inhibitors of NF-κB signaling. While many of these poxviral NF-κB inhibitors are not required for VV replication in cell culture, they virtually all modulate VV virulence in animal models, underscoring the important influence of poxvirus–NF-κB pathway interactions on viral pathogenesis. Here, we review the diversity of mechanisms through which VV-encoded antagonists inhibit initial NF-κB pathway activation and NF-κB signaling intermediates, as well as the activation and function of NF-κB transcription factor complexes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Poxvirus-Driven Insights into Virus and Host Biology)

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10 pages, 905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Epidemiology of Group B Streptococci in Lithuania Identifies Multi-Drug Resistant Clones and Sporadic ST1 Serotypes Ia and Ib

by Jonah Rodgus, Ruta Prakapaite, Panagiotis Mitsidis, Ramune Grigaleviciute, Rita Planciuniene, Povilas Kavaliauskas and Elita Jauneikaite

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1060; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091060 - 17 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1925

Abstract

Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is a leading cause of neonatal infections. Yet, detailed assessment of the genotypic and phenotypic factors associated with GBS carriage, mother-to-baby transmission, and GBS infection in neonates and adults is lacking. Understanding the distribution of GBS genotypes, [...] Read more.

Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is a leading cause of neonatal infections. Yet, detailed assessment of the genotypic and phenotypic factors associated with GBS carriage, mother-to-baby transmission, and GBS infection in neonates and adults is lacking. Understanding the distribution of GBS genotypes, including the predominance of different serotypes, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes, and virulence factors, is likely to help to prevent GBS diseases, as well as inform estimates of the efficacy of future GBS vaccines. To this end, we set out to characterise GBS isolates collected from pregnant and non-pregnant women in Kaunas region in Lithuania. Whole genome sequences of 42 GBS isolates were analysed to determine multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), the presence of acquired AMR and surface protein genes, and the phylogenetic relatedness of isolates. We identified serotypes Ia (42.9%, 18/42), III (33.3%, 14/42), V (21.4%, 9/42), and a single isolate of serotype Ib. Genomic analyses revealed high diversity among the isolates, with 18 sequence types (STs) identified, including three novel STs. 85.7% (36/42) of isolates carried at least one AMR gene: tetM or tetO (35/42), ermB or lsaC (8/42) and ant6-Ia and aph3-III (2/42). This study represents the first genomic analysis of GBS isolated from women in Lithuania and contributes to an improved understanding of the global spread of GBS genotypes and phenotypes, laying the foundations for future GBS surveillance in Lithuania. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Group B-Streptococcus (GBS))

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13 pages, 932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tetraplex Fluorescent Microbead-Based Immunoassay for the Serodiagnosis of Newcastle Disease Virus and Avian Influenza Viruses in Poultry Sera

by Na Zhao, Christian Grund, Martin Beer, Gang Wang and Timm C. Harder

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1059; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091059 - 17 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1847

Abstract

Virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) as well as highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAIV) subtypes H5 and H7 induce contagious and lethal systemic disease in poultry. In contrast, low pathogenic AIV H5 and H7 may circulate clinically unnoticed in poultry but eventually generate HPAIV. [...] Read more.

Virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) as well as highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAIV) subtypes H5 and H7 induce contagious and lethal systemic disease in poultry. In contrast, low pathogenic AIV H5 and H7 may circulate clinically unnoticed in poultry but eventually generate HPAIV. Low pathogenic NDV strains are widely used as live-attenuated vaccines against ND. Serological tools are essential to conduct active surveillance for infections with notifiable AIV-H5, -H7 and to control vaccination against NDV and HPAIV in poultry populations. Here, recombinant nucleocapsid proteins (NP) of AIV and NDV, and haemagglutinin protein fragment-1 (HA1) of AIV subtypes H5 and H7 were expressed in E. coli. Purification and refolding were required before coating fluorescent microspheres via streptavidin-biotin linkage. The tetraplexed inhibition fluorescent microsphere immunoassay (iFMIA) was then assembled for analysis on a Luminex^®-like platform (Bioplex^®) using murine monoclonal antibodies specific for each of the four targets. The assay was evaluated by testing galliform poultry sera derived from experimental infections (n = 257) and from farms (n = 250), respectively. The tetraplex iFMIA compared favorably with commercially available ELISAs and the “gold standard” hemagglutination inhibition assay. Tetraplexed iFMIA provided a specific and sensitive tool to detect and discriminate AIV- and NDV-specific antibodies in the sera of galliform poultry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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22 pages, 1015 KiB

Open AccessReview

SARS-CoV-2 Variants Identification: Overview of Molecular Existing Methods

by Giulia Berno, Lavinia Fabeni, Giulia Matusali, Cesare Ernesto Maria Gruber, Martina Rueca, Emanuela Giombini and Anna Rosa Garbuglia

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091058 - 17 Sep 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2814

Abstract

Since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic the Real Time sharing of genome sequences of circulating virus supported the diagnostics and surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and its transmission dynamics. SARS-CoV-2 straightaway showed its tendency to mutate and adapt to the host, culminating in the emergence [...] Read more.

Since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic the Real Time sharing of genome sequences of circulating virus supported the diagnostics and surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and its transmission dynamics. SARS-CoV-2 straightaway showed its tendency to mutate and adapt to the host, culminating in the emergence of variants; so it immediately became of crucial importance to be able to detect them quickly but also to be able to monitor in depth the changes on the whole genome to early identify the new possibly emerging variants. In this scenario, this manuscript aims to provide an overview of the existing methods for the identification of SARS-CoV-2 variants (from rapid method based on identification of one or more specific mutations to Whole Genome sequencing approach-WGS), taking into account limitations, advantages and applications of them in the field of diagnosis and surveillance of SARS-CoV-2. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)

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18 pages, 2462 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Methods for the Viability Assessment of Bacterial Pathogens: Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

by Kieu The Loan Trinh and Nae Yoon Lee

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1057; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091057 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6707

Abstract

Viability assessment is a critical step in evaluating bacterial pathogens to determine infectious risks to public health. Based on three accepted viable criteria (culturability, metabolic activity, and membrane integrity), current viability assessments are categorized into three main strategies. The first strategy relies on [...] Read more.

Viability assessment is a critical step in evaluating bacterial pathogens to determine infectious risks to public health. Based on three accepted viable criteria (culturability, metabolic activity, and membrane integrity), current viability assessments are categorized into three main strategies. The first strategy relies on the culturability of bacteria. The major limitation of this strategy is that it cannot detect viable but nonculturable (VBNC) bacteria. As the second strategy, based on the metabolic activity of bacteria, VBNC bacteria can be detected. However, VBNC bacteria sometimes can enter a dormant state that allows them to silence reproduction and metabolism; therefore, they cannot be detected based on culturability and metabolic activity. In order to overcome this drawback, viability assessments based on membrane integrity (third strategy) have been developed. However, these techniques generally require multiple steps, bulky machines, and laboratory technicians to conduct the tests, making them less attractive and popular applications. With significant advances in microfluidic technology, these limitations of current technologies for viability assessment can be improved. This review summarized and discussed the advances, challenges, and future perspectives of current methods for the viability assessment of bacterial pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Foodborne Pathogens)

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15 pages, 1221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct and Indirect Role of Migratory Birds in Spreading CCHFV and WNV: A Multidisciplinary Study on Three Stop-Over Islands in Italy

by Elisa Mancuso, Luciano Toma, Ilaria Pascucci, Silvio Gerardo d’Alessio, Valeria Marini, Michela Quaglia, Sara Riello, Andrea Ferri, Fernando Spina, Lorenzo Serra, Maria Goffredo and Federica Monaco

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091056 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2062

Abstract

The annual movements of migratory birds can contribute to the spread of African ticks and tick-borne pathogens of potential public health concern across Europe. The aim of the study was to investigate their role in the possible introduction of African ticks and tick-borne [...] Read more.

The annual movements of migratory birds can contribute to the spread of African ticks and tick-borne pathogens of potential public health concern across Europe. The aim of the study was to investigate their role in the possible introduction of African ticks and tick-borne pathogens into European countries during spring migration. A total of 2344 ticks were collected during three spring seasons from 1079 birds captured on three Italian stop-over islands during their northbound migration. Once identified, each tick was tested by RT-PCR for the presence of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHFV), West Nile (WNV), and Usutu (USUV) viruses. Moreover, carcasses of birds found dead were collected and tested for the possible presence of WNV and USUV. Results confirmed a higher contribution of trans-Saharan migrants compared to intra-Palearctic ones and the prevalence of African tick species in the sample. CCHFV was detected for the second time in Italy in a Hyalomma rufipes, and WNV was found in two ticks of the same genus, all carried by trans-Saharan birds. WNV lineage 1 was also found in the organs of a Garden warbler. These results confirm the role of migratory birds in carrying African ticks, as well as viruses of zoonotic importance, from Africa into Europe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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11 pages, 1097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Syphilis and Co-Infections with HIV-1, HBV, and HCV among People Who Use Crack-Cocaine in Northern Brazil

by Karen Lorena N. Baia, Ana Caroline C. Cordeiro, Paula Cristina R. Frade, Alanna Gabrielly N. Gouveia, Rafael Lima Resque, Luiz Marcelo L. Pinheiro, Ricardo Roberto S. Fonseca, Luiz Fernando A. Machado, Luisa C. Martins, Emil Kupek, Benedikt Fischer and Aldemir B. Oliveira-Filho

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1055; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091055 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2201

Abstract

The rates of syphilis and viral co-infections among people who use crack-cocaine (PWUCC) were assessed in this study. This cross-sectional study relied on biological and self-reported socio-behavioral data from a convenience sample of 990 PWUCC from twenty-six municipalities in the states of Amapá [...] Read more.

The rates of syphilis and viral co-infections among people who use crack-cocaine (PWUCC) were assessed in this study. This cross-sectional study relied on biological and self-reported socio-behavioral data from a convenience sample of 990 PWUCC from twenty-six municipalities in the states of Amapá and Pará, northern Brazil. Blood samples were collected to assess the presence of Treponema pallidum using the Rapid Qualitative Test (RQT) and the Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL). Reactive samples by RQT were used to assess the presence of HBV, HCV, and HIV-1 using Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Logistic regression models were used to determine the association of variables assessed with syphilis. In total, 287 (29.0%) of the PWUCC sample had reactive results for syphilis. HBV (15.7%), HCV (5.9%), and HIV-1 (9.8%) were detected among PWUCC with syphilis. Young age, low monthly income and education level, long duration of crack-cocaine use, condomless sex, multiple sex partners, and exchange of sex for money/drugs were associated with syphilis. The present study provides unique insights on the epidemiological status of syphilis among PWUCC in northern Brazil, with multiple implications for improving urgent interventions for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosis and Prevention of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs))

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6 pages, 539 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Characteristics of COVID-19 Infection in a Hospitalized Autoimmune Hepatitis Patient

by Vanessa Duarte da Costa, Wilian Jean Wiggers, Claudia Alexandra Pontes Ivantes, Rodrigo Jardim Monteiro da Fonseca, Alberto Martín Rivera Dávila, Otacilio C. Moreira, Beatriz Iandra da Silva Ferreira, Vanessa Salete de Paula, Lucas Lima da Silva, Alanna Calheiros Santos and Livia Melo Villar

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1054; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091054 - 16 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1498

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has become a major public health worldwide. Hepatic dysfunction has been seen in patients with COVID-19 and could be related to a viral cytopathic effect, an exacerbated immune reaction, [...] Read more.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has become a major public health worldwide. Hepatic dysfunction has been seen in patients with COVID-19 and could be related to a viral cytopathic effect, an exacerbated immune reaction, or drug-induced liver damage. Currently, routine modification of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) before and after SARS-CoV-2 infection remains an important topic to be discussed. However, there is little evidence about this thematic to support any recommendation. Here, we described a case report in which the use of an immunosuppressive drug by a patient with diagnosed AIH might have influenced the COVID-19 clinical course with altered laboratory hematological and biochemical parameters during infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemia on Infection Disease)

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6 pages, 560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Lotmaria passim and Crithidia mellificae in Selected Bumblebee Species

by Maria Michalczyk and Rajmund Sokół

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1053; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091053 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1539

Abstract

Bumblebees (Bombus spp.) are an essential element of the ecosystem and the global economy. They are valued pollinators in many countries around the word. Unfortunately, there has been a decline in the bumblebee population, which is attributed to, among others, pathogens and [...] Read more.

Bumblebees (Bombus spp.) are an essential element of the ecosystem and the global economy. They are valued pollinators in many countries around the word. Unfortunately, there has been a decline in the bumblebee population, which is attributed to, among others, pathogens and reduced access to food due to the loss of natural nesting sites. Lotmaria passim and Crithidia mellificae, protozoan pathogens of the family Trypanosomatidae, commonly infect bumblebees, including in Poland. In this study, a Polish population of bumblebees was screened for L. passim and C. mellificae. The experiment was performed on 13 adult bumblebees belonging to 4 species: B. lapidarius, B. lucorum, B. pascuorum, and B. terrestris. Protozoa of the family Trypanosomatidae were identified by PCR. Only L. passim was identified in one B. pascuorum individual. Further research is needed to confirm the effect of concurrent pathogens on the decline of bumblebee populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights into Honeybee Virus and Other Pathogens)

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13 pages, 996 KiB

Open AccessReview

Promastigote-to-Amastigote Conversion in Leishmania spp.—A Molecular View

by Joachim Clos, Janne Grünebast and Myrine Holm

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1052; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091052 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4980

Abstract

A key factor in the successful infection of a mammalian host by Leishmania parasites is their conversion from extracellular motile promastigotes into intracellular amastigotes. We discuss the physical and chemical triggers that induce this conversion and the accompanying changes at the molecular level [...] Read more.

A key factor in the successful infection of a mammalian host by Leishmania parasites is their conversion from extracellular motile promastigotes into intracellular amastigotes. We discuss the physical and chemical triggers that induce this conversion and the accompanying changes at the molecular level crucial for the survival of these intracellular parasites. Special emphasis is given to the reliance of these trypanosomatids on the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression but also to the role played by protein kinases, chaperone proteins and proteolytic enzymes. Lastly, we offer a model to integrate the transduction of different stress signals for the induction of stage conversion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Leishmania & Leishmaniasis)

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5 pages, 198 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Failure of an Approximately Six Week Course of Tafenoquine to Completely Eradicate Babesia microti Infection in an Immunocompromised Patient

by Prithiv J. Prasad and Gary P. Wormser

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1051; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091051 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1816

Abstract

Although tafenoquine was highly effective for eliminating microscopically detectable parasitemia in mouse models of Babesia microti infection, all of the mice which were assessed developed a relapse of infection, except for those which had been treated concomitantly with artesunate. We report an immunocompromised [...] Read more.

Although tafenoquine was highly effective for eliminating microscopically detectable parasitemia in mouse models of Babesia microti infection, all of the mice which were assessed developed a relapse of infection, except for those which had been treated concomitantly with artesunate. We report an immunocompromised patient with a similar relapse of parasitemia despite a 46-day course of tafenoquine treatment. More data on whether a longer duration of tafenoquine treatment or using a higher maintenance dose, versus adding a second drug to the regimen, will prevent relapse when tafenoquine is used to treat a highly immunocompromised patient with babesiosis should be investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenesis, Epidemiology, Host Response and Control of Lyme Disease and Other Tick-Borne Diseases)

19 pages, 868 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Gut Microbiota and COVID-19: Potential Implications for Disease Severity

by Giulia Rocchi, Marta Giovanetti, Francesca Benedetti, Alessandra Borsetti, Giancarlo Ceccarelli, Davide Zella, Annamaria Altomare, Massimo Ciccozzi and Michele Pier Luca Guarino

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1050; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091050 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5852

Abstract

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic resulted in an unprecedented global crisis. SARS-CoV-2 primarily causes lung infection trough the binding of the virus with the ACE-2 cell receptor located on the surface of the alveolar epithelial cells. Notably, ACE-2 cell receptors are also expressed in the [...] Read more.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic resulted in an unprecedented global crisis. SARS-CoV-2 primarily causes lung infection trough the binding of the virus with the ACE-2 cell receptor located on the surface of the alveolar epithelial cells. Notably, ACE-2 cell receptors are also expressed in the epithelial cells of the intestinal tract (GI). Recent data showed that the microbial communities of the GI might act as local and systematic inflammatory modulators. Gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhea, are frequently observed in infected individuals, and recent released data indicate that SARS-CoV-2 may also spread by fecal–oral transmission. Moreover, the gut microbiota’s ecosystem can regulate and be regulated by invading pathogens, including viruses, facilitating an effective immune response, which in turn results in less severe diseases. In this regard, increased SARS-CoV-2 mortality and morbidities appear to be frequently observed in elderly immunocompromised patients and in people with essential health problems, such as diabetes, who, indeed, tend to have a less diverse gut microbiota (dysbiosis). Therefore, it is important to understand how the interaction between the gut microbiota and SARS-CoV-2 might shape the intensity of the infection and different clinical outcomes. Here, we provide insights into the current knowledge of dysbiosis during SARS-CoV-2 infection and methods that may be used to re-establish a more correct microbiota composition. Full article

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9 pages, 2994 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Molecular Characterization of HN1304M, a Cat Que Virus Isolated from Midges in China

by Ziqian Xu, Lei Cao, Liang Cai, Shihong Fu, Kai Nie, Qikai Yin, Yuxi Cao, Guoping Liu, Yunzhi Liu, Hong Zhang, Lidong Gao, Ying He, Huanyu Wang and Guodong Liang

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091049 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1319

Abstract

The Cat Que orthobunyavirus has been found in mosquitoes, birds, pigs, and humans, suggesting its wide range of hosts and potential public health implications. During arbovirus surveillance in 2013, the HN1304M virus was isolated from naturally occurring Culicoides biting midges in Hunan Province, [...] Read more.

The Cat Que orthobunyavirus has been found in mosquitoes, birds, pigs, and humans, suggesting its wide range of hosts and potential public health implications. During arbovirus surveillance in 2013, the HN1304M virus was isolated from naturally occurring Culicoides biting midges in Hunan Province, southern China. The virus was cytopathic to BHK-21 cells and showed stable passage, but was not cytopathic to C6/36 cells. Determination and analysis of the viral genome sequence revealed that HN1304M is an RNA virus with three gene segments, namely, L, M, and S. The nucleotide and amino acid sequence homologies of HN1304M to Cat Que viruses in the Manzanilla species complex were 90.3–99.4%, and 95–100%, respectively, while the homologies to other viruses in this species complex were 74–86.6% and 78.1–96.1%, respectively. A phylogenetic analysis of the viral genes revealed that HN1304M formed an evolutionary branch with other Cat Que viruses isolated from mosquitoes, pigs, birds, and humans, which was completely independent of the other viruses in this complex. The fact that the Cat Que virus was isolated from Culicoides suggests that biting midges may participate in the natural circulation of Cat Que viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Arboviral Encephalitis)

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10 pages, 5277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generation and Characterization of Drug-Resistant Influenza B Viruses Selected In Vitro with Baloxavir Acid

by Amel Saim-Mamoun, Yacine Abed, Julie Carbonneau and Guy Boivin

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1048; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091048 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1794

Abstract

Baloxavir marboxil (BXM) is an antiviral drug that targets the endonuclease of the influenza polymerase acidic (PA) protein. Antiviral resistance, mainly mediated by the I38T PA substitution, readily occurs in both A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) viruses following a single dose of BXM. Influenza B [...] Read more.

Baloxavir marboxil (BXM) is an antiviral drug that targets the endonuclease of the influenza polymerase acidic (PA) protein. Antiviral resistance, mainly mediated by the I38T PA substitution, readily occurs in both A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) viruses following a single dose of BXM. Influenza B resistance to BXM remains poorly documented. We aimed to generate baloxavir-resistant contemporary influenza B/Yamagata/16/1988- and B/Victoria/2/1987-like viruses by in vitro passages under baloxavir acid (BXA) pressure to identify resistance mutations and to characterize the fitness of drug-resistant variants. Influenza B/Phuket/3073/2013 recombinant virus (rg-PKT13, a B/Yamagata/16/1988-like virus) and B/Quebec/MCV-11/2019 (MCV19, a B/Victoria/2/1987-like isolate) were passaged in ST6GalI-MDCK cells in the presence of increasing concentrations of BXA. At defined passages, viral RNA was extracted for sequencing the PA gene. The I38T PA substitution was selected in MCV19 after six passages in presence of BXA whereas no PA change was detected in rg-PKT13. The I38T substitution increased the BXA IC₅₀ value by 13.7-fold in the MCV19 background and resulted in reduced viral titers compared to the wild type (WT) at early time points in ST6GalI-MDCK and at all time-points in human epithelial cells. By contrast, the I38T substitution had no impact on MCV19 polymerase activity, and this mutation was genetically stable over four passages. In conclusion, our results show a similar pathway of resistance to BXA in influenza B viruses highlighting the major role of the I38T PA substitution and suggest that I38T may differently impact the fitness of influenza variants depending on the viral type, subtype, or lineage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fighting Flu—Recent Advances in Influenza Research)

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12 pages, 1207 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Portable Diagnostic Assay, Genetic Diversity, and Isolation of Seoul Virus from Rattus norvegicus Collected in Gangwon Province, Republic of Korea

by Kyungmin Park, Seung-Ho Lee, Jongwoo Kim, Jingyeong Lee, Geum-Young Lee, Seungchan Cho, Juyoung Noh, Jeewan Choi, Juwon Park, Dong-Hyun Song, Se Hun Gu, Hyeongseok Yun, Jung-Eun Kim, Daesang Lee, Il-Ung Hwang, Won-Keun Kim and Jin-Won Song

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1047; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091047 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2195

Abstract

Seoul virus (SEOV), an etiological agent for hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, poses a significant public health threat worldwide. This study evaluated the feasibility of a mobile Biomeme platform for facilitating rapid decision making of SEOV infection. A total of 27 Rattus norvegicus [...] Read more.

Seoul virus (SEOV), an etiological agent for hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, poses a significant public health threat worldwide. This study evaluated the feasibility of a mobile Biomeme platform for facilitating rapid decision making of SEOV infection. A total of 27 Rattus norvegicus were collected from Seoul Metropolitan City and Gangwon Province in Republic of Korea (ROK), during 2016–2020. The serological and molecular prevalence of SEOV was 5/27 (18.5%) and 2/27 (7.4%), respectively. SEOV RNA was detected in multiple tissues of rodents using the Biomeme device, with differences in Ct values ranging from 0.6 to 2.1 cycles compared to a laboratory benchtop system. Using amplicon-based next-generation sequencing, whole-genome sequences of SEOV were acquired from lung tissues of Rn18-1 and Rn19-5 collected in Gangwon Province. Phylogenetic analysis showed a phylogeographical diversity of rat-borne orthohantavirus collected in Gangwon Province. We report a novel isolate of SEOV Rn19-5 from Gangwon Province. Our findings demonstrated that the Biomeme system can be applied for the molecular diagnosis of SEOV comparably to the laboratory-based platform. Whole-genome sequencing of SEOV revealed the phylogeographical diversity of orthohantavirus in the ROK. This study provides important insights into the field-deployable diagnostic assays and genetic diversity of orthohantaviruses for the rapid response to hantaviral outbreaks in the ROK. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Diagnostic and Epidemiology of Viral Infections)

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10 pages, 1130 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Prevalence of Glaucoma among Patients in an Onchocerciasis Endemic Area (Mahenge, Tanzania)

by Juliet Otiti-Sengeri, Blair Andrew Omaido, Dan Bhwana, Damalie Nakanjako, Malik Missiru, Musa Muwonge, Luis-Jorge Amaral, Bruno P. Mmbando and Robert Colebunders

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1046; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091046 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1406

Abstract

Onchocerciasis is known to cause skin lesions and blindness, but there is also epidemiological evidence that onchocerciasis is associated with epilepsy, including nodding syndrome. We carried out ocular exams in persons with epilepsy in Mahenge, an onchocerciasis endemic area with a high prevalence [...] Read more.

Onchocerciasis is known to cause skin lesions and blindness, but there is also epidemiological evidence that onchocerciasis is associated with epilepsy, including nodding syndrome. We carried out ocular exams in persons with epilepsy in Mahenge, an onchocerciasis endemic area with a high prevalence of epilepsy in Tanzania. We recruited 278 consecutive persons with epilepsy attending the epilepsy clinic at Mahenge hospital and satellite clinics in rural villages. They underwent a general physical and a detailed ocular examination and were tested for onchocerciasis Ov16 IgG4 antibodies. Glaucoma was defined by a raised intraocular pressure above 21 mmHg with evidence of typical glaucomatous disc changes in one or both eyes. Among the 278 participants, median age 27 (IQR 21–38) years, 55.4% were female; 151/210 (71.9%) (95% CI: 65.3–77.9) were Ov16 positive. The most frequent ophthalmic lesions were glaucoma (33.1%), vitreous opacities (6.5%) and cataracts (2.9%). In multivariate analysis, glaucoma (adjusted IRR = 1.46; 95% CI: 1.24–1.70) and age (adjusted IRR = 1.01; 95% CI: 1.01–1.02) were significantly associated with onchocerciasis. In conclusion, a high prevalence of glaucoma was observed among Ov16 positive persons with epilepsy. Persons with epilepsy with O. volvulus infection should undergo screening for glaucoma to prevent one of the causes of preventable blindness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Onchocerciasis and River Epilepsy in 2022)

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18 pages, 1619 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Genetic Variants of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase and Their Associated Enzyme Activity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Daniel A. Pfeffer, Ari Winasti Satyagraha, Arkasha Sadhewa, Mohammad Shafiul Alam, Germana Bancone, Yap Boum II, Marcelo Brito, Liwang Cui, Zeshuai Deng, Gonzalo J. Domingo, Yongshu He, Wasif A. Khan, Mohammad Golam Kibria, Marcus Lacerda, Didier Menard, Wuelton Monteiro, Sampa Pal, Sunil Parikh, Arantxa Roca-Feltrer, Michelle Roh, Mahmoud M. Sirdah, Duoquan Wang, Qiuying Huang, Rosalind E. Howes, Ric N. Price and Benedikt Ley Show full author list Hide full author list

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1045; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091045 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3780

Abstract

Low glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme (G6PD) activity is a key determinant of drug-induced haemolysis. More than 230 clinically relevant genetic variants have been described. We investigated the variation in G6PD activity within and between different genetic variants. In this systematic review, individual patient data [...] Read more.

Low glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme (G6PD) activity is a key determinant of drug-induced haemolysis. More than 230 clinically relevant genetic variants have been described. We investigated the variation in G6PD activity within and between different genetic variants. In this systematic review, individual patient data from studies reporting G6PD activity measured by spectrophotometry and corresponding the G6PD genotype were pooled (PROSPERO: CRD42020207448). G6PD activity was converted into percent normal activity applying study-specific definitions of 100%. In total, 4320 individuals from 17 studies across 10 countries were included, where 1738 (40.2%) had one of the 24 confirmed G6PD mutations, and 61 observations (3.5%) were identified as outliers. The median activity of the hemi-/homozygotes with A-(c.202G>A/c.376A>G) was 29.0% (range: 1.7% to 76.6%), 10.2% (range: 0.0% to 32.5%) for Mahidol, 16.9% (range 3.3% to 21.3%) for Mediterranean, 9.0% (range: 2.9% to 23.2%) for Vanua Lava, and 7.5% (range: 0.0% to 18.3%) for Viangchan. The median activity in heterozygotes was 72.1% (range: 16.4% to 127.1%) for A-(c.202G>A/c.376A>G), 54.5% (range: 0.0% to 112.8%) for Mahidol, 37.9% (range: 20.7% to 80.5%) for Mediterranean, 53.8% (range: 10.9% to 82.5%) for Vanua Lava, and 52.3% (range: 4.8% to 78.6%) for Viangchan. A total of 99.5% of hemi/homozygotes with the Mahidol mutation and 100% of those with the Mediterranean, Vanua Lava, and Viangchan mutations had <30% activity. For A-(c.202G>A/c.376A>G), 55% of hemi/homozygotes had <30% activity. The G6PD activity for each variant spanned the current classification thresholds used to define clinically relevant categories of enzymatic deficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plasmodium vivax and G6PD Deficiency: From Development of Novel Diagnostic Tools to Implementation into Routine Care)

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12 pages, 1840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Ceragenins and Antimicrobial Peptides on the A549 Cell Line and an In Vitro Co-Culture Model of A549 Cells and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

by Ozlem Oyardi, Paul B. Savage and Cagla Bozkurt Guzel

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091044 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1595

Abstract

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an important pathogen that can adhere to host tissues and epithelial surfaces, especially during chronic infections such as cystic fibrosis (CF) lung infections. The effect of ceragenins and antimicrobial peptides (AMP) on this colonization was investigated in a co-culture infection [...] Read more.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an important pathogen that can adhere to host tissues and epithelial surfaces, especially during chronic infections such as cystic fibrosis (CF) lung infections. The effect of ceragenins and antimicrobial peptides (AMP) on this colonization was investigated in a co-culture infection model. After determining the antimicrobial effects of the substances on P. aeruginosa planktonic cells, their cytotoxicity on the A549 cell line was also determined. After the A549 cell line was infected with P. aeruginosa, the effect of antimicrobials on intracellular bacteria as well as the effects in inhibiting the adhesion of P. aeruginosa were investigated. In addition, LDH release from cells was determined by performing an LDH experiment to understand the cytotoxicity of bacterial infection and antimicrobial treatment on cells. CSA-131 was determined as the antimicrobial agent with the highest antimicrobial activity, while the antimicrobial effects of AMPs were found to be much lower than those of ceragenins. The antimicrobial with the lowest IC₅₀ value was determined as the combination of CSA-131 with Pluronic F127. CSA-13 has been determined to be the most effective antimicrobial with its effectiveness to both intracellular bacteria and bacterial adhesion. Nevertheless, further safety, efficacy, toxicity, and pharmacological studies of ceragenins are needed to evaluate clinical utility. Full article

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13 pages, 1429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rabies Virus Seroprevalence among Dogs in Limpopo National Park and the Phylogenetic Analyses of Rabies Viruses in Mozambique

by Milton Mapatse, Ernest Ngoepe, Darrell Abernethy, José Manuel Fafetine, Iolanda Anahory and Claude Sabeta

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1043; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091043 - 14 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1867

Abstract

Rabies is considered a neglected disease among many developing Asian and African countries, including Mozambique, where its re-emergence is often attributed to low dog parenteral vaccination coverage. The objectives of this study were two-fold: (1) to assess the level of antibodies against rabies [...] Read more.

Rabies is considered a neglected disease among many developing Asian and African countries, including Mozambique, where its re-emergence is often attributed to low dog parenteral vaccination coverage. The objectives of this study were two-fold: (1) to assess the level of antibodies against rabies virus in dogs (n = 418) in Limpopo National Park (LNP), and (2) to genetically characterise selected rabies viruses from brain tissue samples collected in 2017 and 2018. To meet the first objective, we used the BioPro^TM Rabies blocking ELISA antibody kit, and the results were expressed as the percentage of blocking (%PB). Dog sera with PB ≥ 40% were considered positive for antibodies to rabies virus, whereas sera with PB < 40% were negative. Just under ninety percent (89.2%; n = 373) of dogs were seronegative, and the rest (10.8%; n = 45) had detectable levels of rabies virus-specific antibodies. All eight brain tissue samples were positive for rabies virus antigen using a direct fluorescent antibody test and amplified in a quantitative real-time PCR, but only five (n = 4 from dogs and n = 1 from a cat) were amplified in a conventional reverse-transcription PCR targeting partial regions of the nucleoprotein (N) and the glycoprotein (G) genes. All samples were successfully sequenced. Phylogenetically, the rabies viruses were all of dog origin and were very closely related to each other (Africa 1b rabies virus lineage). Furthermore, the sequences had a common progenitor with other rabies viruses from southern Africa, confirming the transboundary nature of rabies and the pivotal role of dogs in maintaining rabies cycles. The study demonstrates the principal application of the BioPro^TM rabies ELISA antibody for the detection of anti-lyssavirus-specific antibodies in the serum samples of dogs, and most importantly, it highlights the low levels of antibodies against rabies virus in this dog population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Transboundary Diseases)

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19 pages, 1623 KiB

Open AccessReview

What Has Happened to Heartworm Disease in Europe in the Last 10 Years?

by Rodrigo Morchón, José Alberto Montoya-Alonso, Iván Rodríguez-Escolar and Elena Carretón

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1042; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091042 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5381

Abstract

Heartworm disease caused by Dirofilaria immitis is a vector-borne disease that affects canids and felids, both domestic and wild, throughout the world. It is a chronic disease which causes vascular damage in pulmonary arteries, and in advanced stages, the presence of pulmonary hypertension [...] Read more.

Heartworm disease caused by Dirofilaria immitis is a vector-borne disease that affects canids and felids, both domestic and wild, throughout the world. It is a chronic disease which causes vascular damage in pulmonary arteries, and in advanced stages, the presence of pulmonary hypertension and right-sided congestive heart failure can be evidenced. Moreover, pulmonary thromboembolism is caused by the death of the worms, which can be lethal for the infected animal. Furthermore, it is the causative agent of human pulmonary dirofilariosis, being a zoonotic disease. The aim of this review was to update the current epidemiological situation of heartworm in Europe in dogs, cats, wild animals, and vectors insects, and to analyse the factors that may have contributed to the continuous spread of the disease in the last decade (2012–2021). In Europe, the disease has extended to eastern countries, being currently endemic in countries where previously only isolated or imported cases were reported. Furthermore, its prevalence has continued to increase in southern countries, traditionally endemic. This distribution trends and changes are influenced by several factors which are discussed in this review, such as the climate changes, presence of vectors in new areas, the appearance of new competent vector species in the continent, increased movement of pets that travelled to or originated from endemic countries, the urbanisation of rural areas leading to the formation of so-called “heat islands”, or the creation of extensive areas of irrigated crops. The continuous expansion of D. immitis must be monitored, and measures adapted to the situation of each country must be carried out for adequate control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Control and Zoonotic Role of Disease Vectors)

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20 pages, 1321 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infection after Kidney Transplantation: A Comprehensive Review

by Bogdan Marian Sorohan, Gener Ismail, Dorina Tacu, Bogdan Obrișcă, Gina Ciolan, Costin Gîngu, Ioanel Sinescu and Cătălin Baston

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091041 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3962

Abstract

Tuberculosis (TB) in kidney transplant (KT) recipients is an important opportunistic infection with higher incidence and prevalence than in the general population and is associated with important morbidity and mortality. We performed an extensive literature review of articles published between 1 January 2000 [...] Read more.

Tuberculosis (TB) in kidney transplant (KT) recipients is an important opportunistic infection with higher incidence and prevalence than in the general population and is associated with important morbidity and mortality. We performed an extensive literature review of articles published between 1 January 2000 and 15 June 2022 to provide an evidence-based review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and outcomes of TB in KT recipients. We included all studies which reported epidemiological and/or outcome data regarding active TB in KT, and we approached the diagnostic and treatment challenges according to the current guidelines. Prevalence of active TB in KT recipients ranges between 0.3–15.2%. KT recipients with active TB could have a rejection rate up to 55.6%, a rate of graft loss that varies from 2.2% to 66.6% and a mortality rate up to 60%. Understanding the epidemiological risk, risk factors, transmission modalities, diagnosis and treatment challenges is critical for clinicians in providing an appropriate management for KT with TB. Among diagnostic challenges, which are at the same time associated with delay in management, the following should be considered: atypical clinical presentation, association with co-infections, decreased predictive values of screening tests, diverse radiological aspects and particular diagnostic methods. Regarding treatment challenges in KT recipients with TB, drug interactions, drug toxicities and therapeutical adherence must be considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)

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14 pages, 1299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Canine Leptospirosis in a Northwestern Region of Colombia: Serological, Molecular and Epidemiological Factors

by Janeth Perez-Garcia, Fernando P. Monroy and Piedad Agudelo-Florez

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091040 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1395

Abstract

Canine leptospirosis is a zoonosis of epidemiological importance. Dogs are recognized as primary reservoirs of Leptospira interrogans serogroup Canicola and a source of infection to the environment through urine. This study aimed to determine the presence of antibodies against Leptospira in canines from [...] Read more.

Canine leptospirosis is a zoonosis of epidemiological importance. Dogs are recognized as primary reservoirs of Leptospira interrogans serogroup Canicola and a source of infection to the environment through urine. This study aimed to determine the presence of antibodies against Leptospira in canines from 49 municipalities in the Department of Antioquia, Colombia. We performed a cross-sectional study of dogs included in a neutering control program. We collected 1335 sera samples, assayed by a microagglutination test (MAT), and performed PCR detection in 21 urine samples. We also surveyed 903 dog owners. We found a seroreactivity of 11.2% (150/1335) in Antioquia with titers ≥1:50. Municipalities with the highest number of cases were Belmira (46.1%), Turbo (34.5%), and Concepción (31.0%). L. santarosai was identified by phylogenetic analysis in one urine sample from the municipality of Granada. The most important factor associated with a positive result was the lack of vaccination against leptospirosis (PR 3.3, p ≤ 0.014). Environmental factors such as water presence and bare soil around the household were also associated with Leptospira seroreactivity in the Department of Antioquia. We reviewed a national epidemiological surveillance database for human cases in those municipalities. We found a correlation between the high number of cases in canines and humans, especially in the Uraba. Serological and molecular results showed the circulation of Leptospira. Future public health efforts in the municipalities with the highest numbers of seroreactivity should be directed towards vaccination to prevent animal disease and decrease the probability of transmission of Leptospira. Dogs actively participate in the Leptospira cycle in Antioquia and encourage the implementation of vaccination protocols and coverage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)

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20 pages, 1524 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Determinants of Virus Variation, Evolution, and Host Adaptation

by Katherine LaTourrette and Hernan Garcia-Ruiz

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091039 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5398

Abstract

Virus evolution is the change in the genetic structure of a viral population over time and results in the emergence of new viral variants, strains, and species with novel biological properties, including adaptation to new hosts. There are host, vector, environmental, and viral [...] Read more.

Virus evolution is the change in the genetic structure of a viral population over time and results in the emergence of new viral variants, strains, and species with novel biological properties, including adaptation to new hosts. There are host, vector, environmental, and viral factors that contribute to virus evolution. To achieve or fine tune compatibility and successfully establish infection, viruses adapt to a particular host species or to a group of species. However, some viruses are better able to adapt to diverse hosts, vectors, and environments. Viruses generate genetic diversity through mutation, reassortment, and recombination. Plant viruses are exposed to genetic drift and selection pressures by host and vector factors, and random variants or those with a competitive advantage are fixed in the population and mediate the emergence of new viral strains or species with novel biological properties. This process creates a footprint in the virus genome evident as the preferential accumulation of substitutions, insertions, or deletions in areas of the genome that function as determinants of host adaptation. Here, with respect to plant viruses, we review the current understanding of the sources of variation, the effect of selection, and its role in virus evolution and host adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evolution of Plant Viruses)

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12 pages, 2051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parallel Propagation of Toxoplasma gondii In Vivo, In Vitro and in Alternate Model: Towards Less Dependence on the Mice Model

by Maria João Gargaté, Anabela Vilares, Idalina Ferreira, Tânia Reis, Susana Martins, Joana Mendonça, Vítor Borges and João Paulo Gomes

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1038; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091038 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1536

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan. In pregnant women, it can lead to severe birth defects or intrauterine death of the fetus. Most of what is currently know on cell biology of T. gondii comes from studies relying on the RH strain [...] Read more.

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan. In pregnant women, it can lead to severe birth defects or intrauterine death of the fetus. Most of what is currently know on cell biology of T. gondii comes from studies relying on the RH strain propagated in mice. According to the recommendations concerning the animal welfare, we assayed in vitro/in vivo procedures to replace, or at least reduce, the demanding animal model for strain propagation. We evaluated the genetic and phenotypic stability of the RH strain throughout its parallel continuous propagation in mice, in human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF) and in an alternate fashion of these two procedures. We also assessed the virulence impact on the RH strain after different periods of its long-term propagation strictly in cells. The RH strain completely lost its virulence after long-term passage in HFF. Nevertheless, we obtained a successful outcome with the alternate passaging of the parasite in HFF and in mice as this approach enabled T. gondii to maintain the evaluated phenotypic properties, mainly its virulence potential. Also, no genetic changes were observed in genes known to be highly polymorphic or involved in pathoadaptation. In conclusion, the alternate model seems to be a feasible method for T. gondii propagation and maintenance, strongly impacting the number of sacrificed mice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology and Management of Foodborne Parasitic Diseases)

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13 pages, 2072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Islands Shape the Genetic Background of Both JP2 and Non-JP2 Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans

by Weerayuth Kittichotirat, Roger E. Bumgarner and Casey Chen

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091037 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1267

Abstract

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans is a periodontal pathogen associated with periodontitis. This species exhibits substantial variations in gene content among different isolates and has different virulence potentials. This study examined the distribution of genomic islands and their insert sites among genetically diverse A. actinomycetemcomitans strains [...] Read more.

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans is a periodontal pathogen associated with periodontitis. This species exhibits substantial variations in gene content among different isolates and has different virulence potentials. This study examined the distribution of genomic islands and their insert sites among genetically diverse A. actinomycetemcomitans strains by comparative genomic analysis. The results showed that some islands, presumably more ancient, were found across all genetic clades of A. actinomycetemcomitans. In contrast, other islands were specific to individual clades or a subset of clades and may have been acquired more recently. The islands for the biogenesis of serotype-specific antigens comprise distinct genes located in different loci for serotype a and serotype b–f strains. Islands that encode the same cytolethal distending toxins appear to have been acquired via distinct mechanisms in different loci for clade b/c and for clade a/d/e/f strains. The functions of numerous other islands remain to be elucidated. JP2 strains represent a small branch within clade b, one of the five major genetic clades of A. actinomycetemcomitans. In conclusion, the complex process of genomic island acquisition, deletion, and modification is a significant force in the genetic divergence of A. actinomycetemcomitans. Assessing the genetic distinctions between JP2 and non-JP2 strains must consider the landscape of genetic variations shaped by evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The JP2 Genotype of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans: Dissemination and Pathogenicity)

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