Framework of 3D Concrete Printing Potential and Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction and History
1.1. Historical Development of Printing Methods
1.1.1. Additive Manufacturing by Selective Aggregates
1.1.2. Contour Crafting
1.1.3. D-Shape Technique
1.1.4. Concrete Printing
2. Breakdown of the 3D Printing Process
2.1. 3D Concrete Printing Systems
- Gantry-based system: It is the most used system for AM in construction. The gantry-based system, shown in Figure 3a, is based on Contour Crafting and has a printing head that moves in the X, Y, and Z directions like a CNC machine [23]. The drawbacks of this system include the printing size of the structure as it is limited by the size of the gantry itself. Besides, the degree of freedom of the gantry-based printing system is limited to 3-4 degrees which constrain the printing of complex and curved parts.
- Cable-suspended platform: This printing system is made of a frame with suspended cables connected to the concrete extruder, as shown in Figure 3b. The movement of the concrete extruder is controlled by motors in a fully automated way. The advantages of this system are that it offers larger workspaces and is relatively inexpensive. The system can be easily assembled, disassembled, transported, and reconfigured [24]. However, the size of the printed structure is limited by the size of the frame.
- Swarm approach: It consists of a team of mobile or stationary robots, as shown in Figure 3c. The usage of this system provides greater scalability as a larger printing area is covered by the collective reach of the team of robots. Furthermore, it provides greater flexibility due to having a full 6 or 7 degrees of freedom which allows the printing of complex curved parts. The employment of multiple robots increases time efficiency due to the concurrent printing process. However, the motion of the robots must be carefully planned to avoid collisions. Additionally, to avoid unalignment of printed parts by different robots, the robots should be localized with high precision [25].
- Mobile Robotic Arm: The mobile 3D printer, illustrated in Figure 3d, is made of a robotic arm on wheels or a continuous track. This system has great flexibility due to having six or seven degrees of freedom which enables it to print complex structural shapes. Although it is more useful to use this movable system when compared to stationary ones; however, at some construction sites, the movement of the mobile robotic arm and the accuracy of its localization is limited by the terrain conditions. There are also other types of mobile 3D printers that do not contain wheels or continuous tracks, and a crane is used to lift them from one printing location to another at the construction site [23].
2.2. Recommended Materials for 3D Printing in the Construction Industry
2.3. 3D Concrete Laboratory Set-Up
3. Fundamentals of 3D Printing in the Building Industry
3.1. Rheological Parameters of 3DCP
3.2. Reinforcement in 3D-Printed Concrete
3.3. 3D Printing Using Concrete Extrusion
3.4. 3D Printing Using Foam Extrusion
3.5. Early-Age Performance of 3D Printed Concrete
4. Buildability Measurement and Development
5. Large-Scale 3D-Printed Structures
6. Integration of BIM into 3D Construction
7. Challenges Associated with 3DCP
- Developing a concrete mix design with thixotropic rheological behavior that is un-segregable, pumpable, extrudable, buildable, and printable in an exposed environment with various weather conditions.
- Developing a concrete mix design with a small coarse aggregate size that has sufficient mechanical properties to avoid clogs inside the 3D printing machine.
- Developing a concrete mix design with proper tensile properties that allows eliminating or diminishing steel reinforcement.
- Developing a concrete mix design entirely from the materials available locally without the need of acquiring overseas products.
- There are no codes or standards to follow for AM in the construction of buildings.
- Constructing a multi-story building entirely by the 3D printer without using conventional construction methods or other structural systems is still in development.
- 3D printers require skilled operators, careful handling, and proper cleaning.
- There are still no standardized tests to evaluate concrete’s buildability and interlayer bonding.
- Applying the building regulations issued by governmental entities such as green buildings regulations for thermal insulations issued by the Dubai Municipality.
- Precise localization of the 3D printers under different terrain conditions.
8. Summary and Conclusion
- ❖
- The 3D concrete mix design undergoes various stages of mixing, pumping, and extruding before it produces a 3D structure. However, in order for the 3D concrete mix to be successfully printed, it needs to have certain printability requirements such as pumpability, extrudability, buildability, interlayer bonding, open time, and segregation prevention. All these printability requirements are dependent on the workability (flowability) of the mix design. The concrete should exhibit thixotropic rheological behavior in which the viscosity is reduced and regained through the printing stages in order to have a flowability that allows printability to be achieved. It is recommended to incorporate calcined clay, nano-clay, fibers or ECC, and pozzolanic materials into the mix design to improve the concrete’s thixotropic rheological properties, mechanical properties, durability, and sustainability.
- ❖
- The implementation of AM in construction offers a wide range of advantages including reductions in cost, labor, formwork, construction time, waste, and emissions. It allows flexibility in changing the design of the structure, printing complex and customized shapes for aesthetics, and utilizing the geometry of the printed structure to improve the performance in terms of thermal insulating and soundproofing with less amount of material required. AM allows improvement of efficiency and safety at the construction site and support of damaged structures by allowing structural rehabilitation by using 3D-printed elements.
- ❖
- There are different systems of 3D printing such as gantry-based systems, cable-suspended platforms, swarm approaches, and mobile robotic arms. The selection of any of those systems is dependent on different factors: the 3D structure, budget, and project site, among other factors.
- ❖
- In comparison to conventional construction, additive construction offers a reduction in cost, labor, and time, and an elimination of formwork and reinforcement. It offers the flexibility of changing the design and combining 3D printing with other construction systems. To date, additive construction faces a lot of obstacles that slow down its full utilization. For instance, developing a 3D concrete mix design with thixotropic rheological behavior that is pumpable, extrudable, and printable in an exposed environment. It should also have sufficient mechanical properties regardless of its small coarse aggregate size and has proper tensile properties to reduce or eliminate steel reinforcement.
- ❖
- There is a need for a fully operational 3D laboratory to assess the quality of 3D mix designs in terms of hardened and rheological performance. The focus of this research was directed at fresh properties due to the fact that fresh properties play a larger role in achieving printability requirements. There are six parameters that were suggested to be tested in the 3D laboratory which are workability (flowability), rheological properties (yield strength, plastic viscosity, thixotropy), green strength, buildability, penetration resistance, and hydration heat. Some of these tests lack standardization and can be used for research purposes due to their value in indicating the quality of the 3D mix design. Other parameters still lack testing methods such as interlayer bonding. It is suggested that the 3D laboratory include a temperature controller to mimic the printing process in an exposed environment.
- ❖
- Additive construction can be integrated with Building Information Modeling (BIM) to achieve higher performance throughout the life cycle of the 3D structure from the construction stage to demolition in terms of design, cost, scheduling, energy, and maintenance. In this research, three different algorithms developed for integrating BIM with 3D concrete printing were discussed. The three BIM-integrated additive construction frameworks share a lot of similarities and few differences because their development was for slightly different purposes. However, this integration has not been investigated in depth because it is still in its early stages. Therefore, BIM-integrated additive construction systems still need to be studied in depth in order to develop a system that covers all the significant aspects that can be used as a reference for any 3D construction project.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
3DCP | 3D Concrete Printing |
AG | Attapulgite |
AM | Additive Manufacturing |
BIM | Building Information Modelling |
CAD | Computer-Aided Design |
CC | Contour Crafting |
CNC | Computer Numerical Control |
CSR | Constant Shear Rate |
CUCT | Confined Uniaxial Compression Test |
DEM | Discrete Element Method |
GCT | Green Compression Test |
HRWR | High-Range Water Reducer |
MCF | Mineral-Impregnated Carbon Fiber |
NC | Nano-Clay |
NC | Numerical Control |
PC | Portland Cement |
PU | Polyurethane |
RA | Retarder Agent |
RHA | Rice Husk Ash |
SCM | Supplementary Cementitious Materials |
SEM | Scanning Electron Microscopy |
SF | Silica Fume |
SG | Sodium Gluconate |
TA | Thickening Agent |
TCM | Tangential Continuity Method |
UUCR | Unconfined Uniaxial Compression Test |
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Parameter | Definition |
---|---|
Extrudability | The capability of the material to be homogenously ejected from the nozzle in a continuous manner with no reports of clogging. |
Open Time | The period at which the material can be extruded continuously without separation. |
Pumpability | The ease of transporting the material from the reservoir to the nozzle. |
Extended Workability | The ease with which concrete flows after it is pumped. |
Parameter | Test | Equipment | Standard | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
Workability/flowability | Flow table test | Flow table, concrete mold, tamping rod, scoop, sampling tray, and measuring tape | ASTM C230/C230M | Due to the high flowability of the 3D concrete mixtures, the Flow table test is used instead of the Slump test [4]. |
Rheological properties (yield strength, plastic viscosity, thixotropy) | Concrete rheometer test | Rheometer | ASTM C1749 | 3D-printed concrete is considered as a Bingham fluid (Ʈ = Ʈ0 + ŋ.ɣ) [4]. After plotting (shear stress (Pa) vs. shear rate (1/s)) graph, the rheological properties are obtained from the graph along with the Bingham fluid equation [4]. |
Green strength | Uniaxial compression test | Compression machine | - | The samples are (70 × 140 mm) cylinders. The fresh 3D concrete mixtures are molded in cylindrical containers. After 5 s of compaction, the molds are removed and the specimens’ compression strength is t tested after different resting durations (5, 30, 60, 120, and 150 min) [32]. |
Buildability | Total height and layer settlement measurement | Measuring tape and digital caliper | - | The achieved total height is measured by a measuring tape and the settlement of each layer is measured by a digital caliper [24]. |
Penetration resistance | Penetration resistance test | Concrete mortar penetrometer | ASTM C403 | Strength development at early-age is evaluated using this test by determining the initial and final setting time. Growth of penetration resistance has a linear relationship with the growth of static yield stress; thus, penetration resistance can be used to characterize the structural build-up [32]. |
Hydration heat | Isothermal calorimetry test | TAM air isothermal calorimeter | ASTM C1702 | The rate of heat of hydration is directly proportional to the rate of structural build-up [32]. |
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Al-Tamimi, A.K.; Alqamish, H.H.; Khaldoune, A.; Alhaidary, H.; Shirvanimoghaddam, K. Framework of 3D Concrete Printing Potential and Challenges. Buildings 2023, 13, 827. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030827
Al-Tamimi AK, Alqamish HH, Khaldoune A, Alhaidary H, Shirvanimoghaddam K. Framework of 3D Concrete Printing Potential and Challenges. Buildings. 2023; 13(3):827. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030827
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Tamimi, Adil K., Habib H. Alqamish, Ahlam Khaldoune, Haidar Alhaidary, and Kamyar Shirvanimoghaddam. 2023. "Framework of 3D Concrete Printing Potential and Challenges" Buildings 13, no. 3: 827. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030827