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Volume 9
Issue 5
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Metals, Volume 9, Issue 5 (May 2019) – 135 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Computational fluid dynamics is used to study postcombustion in an electric arc furnace. The furnace is equipped with three virtual lance burners having inlets for the main and secondary oxygen and fuel. The model includes the gas phase inside the burners and the furnace above the molten bath surface. The off-gas analysis is used to estimate the flow rate of CO arising from the bath. The results demonstrate the regions inside the furnace having high concentration of CO capable of being combusted. The model is used to adjust the flow rate of secondary oxygen in order to improve the postcombustion. View this paper.
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13 pages, 6457 KiB  
Article
Stress Corrosion Behavior of AM50Gd Magnesium Alloy in Different Environments
by Miao Yang, Xiaobo Liu, Zhiyi Zhang and Yulai Song
Metals 2019, 9(5), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050616 - 27 May 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3220
Abstract
A new type of high strength corrosion-resistant magnesium alloy was prepared by adding 1% rare earth Gd to AM50 and then treated with hot extrusion method. The stress corrosion properties of the new materials in air, pure water, 0.5 mol/L NaCl, and 0.5 [...] Read more.
A new type of high strength corrosion-resistant magnesium alloy was prepared by adding 1% rare earth Gd to AM50 and then treated with hot extrusion method. The stress corrosion properties of the new materials in air, pure water, 0.5 mol/L NaCl, and 0.5 mol/L Na2SO4 solution were studied by the slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) test, in situ open circuit potential test, Tafel curve test, stereomicroscope, SEM, and EDS. The results showed the following. The stress corrosion sensitivity of the material in different environments was Na2SO4 > NaCl > distilled water > air. According to the Tafel curves measured at 0 and 100 MPa, the corrosion voltage decreased little and the corrosion current density increased rapidly under 100 Pa. This was because the film of the corrosion product ruptured to form a large cathode and a small anode, which resulted in a large instantaneous corrosion current. The mechanism of hydrogen embrittlement and anodic dissolution together affected the stress corrosion behavior of the alloy. In distilled water, hydrogen embrittlement played a major role, while in NaCl and Na2SO4 solution, hydrogen embrittlement and anodic dissolution were both affected. The direct reason of the stress corrosion crack (SCC) samples’ failure was the cracks expanding rapidly at the bottom of pit, which was caused by corrosion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue and Fracture of Mg Alloys)
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17 pages, 4068 KiB  
Article
A Fast Metals Recovery Method for the Synthesis of Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide Material from Cathode Waste
by Soraya Ulfa Muzayanha, Cornelius Satria Yudha, Adrian Nur, Hendri Widiyandari, Hery Haerudin, Hanida Nilasary, Ferry Fathoni and Agus Purwanto
Metals 2019, 9(5), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050615 - 27 May 2019
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6012
Abstract
An approach for a fast recycling process for Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) cathode scrap material without the presence of a reducing agent was proposed. The combination of metal leaching using strong acids (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3) [...] Read more.
An approach for a fast recycling process for Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) cathode scrap material without the presence of a reducing agent was proposed. The combination of metal leaching using strong acids (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3) and mixed metal hydroxide co-precipitation followed by heat treatment was investigated to resynthesize NCA. The most efficient leaching with a high solid loading rate (100 g/L) was obtained using HCl, resulting in Ni, Co, and Al leaching efficiencies of 99.8%, 95.6%, and 99.5%, respectively. The recycled NCA (RNCA) was successfully synthesized and in good agreement with JCPDS Card #87-1562. The highly crystalline RNCA presents the highest specific discharge capacity of a full cell (RNCA vs. Graphite) of 124.2 mAh/g with capacity retention of 96% after 40 cycles. This result is comparable with commercial NCA. Overall, this approach is faster than that in the previous study, resulting in more efficient and facile treatment of the recycling process for NCA waste and providing 35 times faster processing. Full article
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10 pages, 2256 KiB  
Article
Modelling the Sintering Neck Growth Process of Metal Fibers under the Surface Diffusion Mechanism Using the Lattice Boltzmann Method
by Houping Dai, Dongdong Chen and Zhoushun Zheng
Metals 2019, 9(5), 614; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050614 - 27 May 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3100
Abstract
In this paper, the sintering neck growth process of metal fibers under the surface diffusion mechanism is simulated by using the Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM). The surface diffusion model is developed considering the geometrical characteristic of metal fibers. Then, the LBM scheme is [...] Read more.
In this paper, the sintering neck growth process of metal fibers under the surface diffusion mechanism is simulated by using the Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM). The surface diffusion model is developed considering the geometrical characteristic of metal fibers. Then, the LBM scheme is constructed for solving the developed surface diffusion model. The sintering neck growth process of two metal fibers with different fiber angles is simulated by LBM. The simulated morphologies of sintering metal fibers well agree with ones obtained by experiments. Moreover, the numerical simulation results show that the sintering neck radius of two metal fibers is increased with the increase of fiber angle, which implies that the initial geometrical characteristic plays an important role in the sintering neck formation and growth of metal fibers. Full article
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11 pages, 1777 KiB  
Article
Nanoindentation Investigation on the Size-Dependent Creep Behavior in a Zr-Cu-Ag-Al Bulk Metallic Glass
by Z. Y. Ding, Y. X. Song, Y. Ma, X. W. Huang and T. H. Zhang
Metals 2019, 9(5), 613; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050613 - 27 May 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2958
Abstract
Nanoindentation technology has been widely adopted to study creep behavior in small regions. However, nanoindentation creep behavior of metallic glass is still not well understood. In the present work, we investigated nanoindentation size effects on creep deformation in a Zr-based bulk metallic glass [...] Read more.
Nanoindentation technology has been widely adopted to study creep behavior in small regions. However, nanoindentation creep behavior of metallic glass is still not well understood. In the present work, we investigated nanoindentation size effects on creep deformation in a Zr-based bulk metallic glass at room temperature. The total creep strain and strain rate of steady-state creep were gradually decreased with increasing holding depth under a Berkovich indenter, indicating a length-scale-dependent creep resistance. For a spherical indenter, creep deformations were insignificant in elastic regions and then greatly enhanced by increasing holding strain in plastic regions. Strain rate sensitivities (SRS) decreased with increasing holding depth and holding strain at first, and then stabilized as holding depth was beyond about 500 nm for both indenters. SRS values were 0.4–0.5 in elastic regions, in which atomic diffusion and free volume migration could be the creep mechanism. On the other hand, evolution of the shear transformation zone was suggested as a creep mechanism in plastic regions, and the corresponding SRS values were in the range of 0.05 to 0.3. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep and High Temperature Deformation of Metals and Alloys)
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11 pages, 4745 KiB  
Article
Numerical Analysis of the Effects of Pulsed Laser Spot Heating Parameters on Brazing of Diamond Tools
by Yangguang Wang, Guoqin Huang, Yanfang Su, Meiqin Zhang, Zhen Tong and Changcai Cui
Metals 2019, 9(5), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050612 - 27 May 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2943
Abstract
A 3D finite element (FE) model is built to numerically analyze heating parameters on temperature during brazing diamond grains by the pulsed laser spot heating. A pulsed Nd:YAG laser is used for experimental validation. The results show that during laser heating, the temperature [...] Read more.
A 3D finite element (FE) model is built to numerically analyze heating parameters on temperature during brazing diamond grains by the pulsed laser spot heating. A pulsed Nd:YAG laser is used for experimental validation. The results show that during laser heating, the temperature varies periodically because of the pulsed heat flux. Four key thermal indices, the maximum temperature Tmax, the minimum temperature Tmin, the average temperature Tav and the temperature fluctuation amplitude ΔT are addressed. The primary factor affecting Tmax, ΔT and Tav is the pulse power and on Tmin is the pulse frequency. The secondary effect factor on Tmax, Tav and ΔT is the pulse width and on Tmin is the pulse power. For engineering practice, the order of designing heating parameters is recommended as: pulse power, second frequency and last width. Full article
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30 pages, 5984 KiB  
Article
An Evolutionary Yield Function Model Based on Plastic Work and Non-Associated Flow Rule
by Taejoon Park, Fadi Abu-Farha and Farhang Pourboghrat
Metals 2019, 9(5), 611; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050611 - 25 May 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4046
Abstract
A constitutive law was developed based on the evolutionary yield function to account for the evolution of anisotropy induced by the plastic deformation. For the effective description of anisotropy, the yield stress function and plastic potential were separately defined based on the non-associated [...] Read more.
A constitutive law was developed based on the evolutionary yield function to account for the evolution of anisotropy induced by the plastic deformation. For the effective description of anisotropy, the yield stress function and plastic potential were separately defined based on the non-associated flow rule. In particular, for the description of the equivalent status, the accumulated plastic work was employed as an alternative to the accumulated plastic strain. Numerical formulations based on the plastic work were also derived in case the hardening rule, as well as the evolution of the plastic potential and yield stress function, were defined in terms of the plastic work. The developed constitutive law was characterized using the mechanical properties of the multi-phase BAO QP980 steel and niobium sheets at room temperature. From the uniaxial tension tests and the balanced biaxial tension test, separate sets of anisotropic coefficients for each of the plastic potential and yield stress functions were obtained as a function of the plastic work. By comparing with non-evolving yield functions, the importance of the developed constitutive law to properly describe the evolution of the plastic potential and yield function were validated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constitutive Modelling for Metals)
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22 pages, 8703 KiB  
Article
Main Issues in Quality of Friction Stir Welding Joints of Aluminum Alloy and Steel Sheets
by Mian Wasif Safeen and Pasquale Russo Spena
Metals 2019, 9(5), 610; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050610 - 25 May 2019
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6446
Abstract
Joining of aluminum alloys through friction stir welding (FSW) is effectively employed in several industries (e.g., aeronautics and aerospace) since it guarantees proper weld strength as compared to other joining technologies. Contrarily, dissimilar FSW of aluminum alloys and steels often poses important issues [...] Read more.
Joining of aluminum alloys through friction stir welding (FSW) is effectively employed in several industries (e.g., aeronautics and aerospace) since it guarantees proper weld strength as compared to other joining technologies. Contrarily, dissimilar FSW of aluminum alloys and steels often poses important issues in the selection of welding parameters due to the difficulty to join different materials. Improper welding parameters give rise to the formation of intermetallic compounds, and internal and external defects (e.g., tunnel formation, voids, surface grooves, and flash). Intermetallic compounds are brittle precipitates of Al/Fe, which chiefly initiate crack nucleation, whereas internal and external defects mainly act as stress concentration factors. All these features significantly reduce joint strength under static and dynamic loading conditions. With reference to the literature, the influence of main welding parameters (rotational speed, welding speed, tool geometry, tilt angle, offset distance, and plunge depth) on the formation of intermetallic compounds and defects in FSW of aluminum alloys and steels is discussed here. Possible countermeasures to avoid or limit the above-mentioned issues are also summarily reported. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Achievements in Rotary, Linear and Friction Stir Welding of Metals Alloys)
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23 pages, 637 KiB  
Article
Radar Detection-Based Modeling in a Blast Furnace: A Prediction Model of Burden Surface Descent Speed
by Jiuzhou Tian, Akira Tanaka, Qingwen Hou and Xianzhong Chen
Metals 2019, 9(5), 609; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050609 - 25 May 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2799
Abstract
The distribution of burden layers is a vital factor that affects the production of a blast furnace. Radars are advanced instruments that can provide the detection results of the burden surface shape inside a blast furnace in real time. To better estimate the [...] Read more.
The distribution of burden layers is a vital factor that affects the production of a blast furnace. Radars are advanced instruments that can provide the detection results of the burden surface shape inside a blast furnace in real time. To better estimate the burden layer thicknesses through improving the prediction accuracy of the burden descent during charging periods, an innovative data-driven model for predicting the distribution of the burden surface descent speed is proposed. The data adopted were from the detection results of an operating blast furnace, collected using a mechanical swing radar system. Under a kinematic continuum modeling mechanism, the proposed model adopts a linear combination of Gaussian radial basis functions to approximate the equivalent field of burden descent speed along the burden surface radius. A proof of the existence and uniqueness of the prediction solution is given to guarantee that the predicted radial profile of the burden surface can always be calculated numerically. Compared with the plain data-driven descriptive model, the proposed model has the ability to better characterize the variability in the radial distribution of burden descent speed. In addition, the proposed model provides prediction results of higher accuracy for both the future surface shape and descent speed distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mathematical Modeling and Simulation in Ironmaking and Steelmaking)
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9 pages, 2926 KiB  
Article
Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing of Aluminum Components
by Markus Köhler, Sierk Fiebig, Jonas Hensel and Klaus Dilger
Metals 2019, 9(5), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050608 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 94 | Viewed by 10401
Abstract
An increasing demand for flexibility and product integration, combined with reduced product development cycles, leads to continuous development of new manufacturing technologies such as additive manufacturing. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) provides promising technology for the near net-shape production of large structures [...] Read more.
An increasing demand for flexibility and product integration, combined with reduced product development cycles, leads to continuous development of new manufacturing technologies such as additive manufacturing. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) provides promising technology for the near net-shape production of large structures with complex geometry, using cost efficient production resources such as arc welding technology and wire materials. Compared to powder-based additive manufacturing processes, WAAM offers high deposition rates as well as enhanced material utilization. Because of the layer-by-layer built up approach, process conditions such as energy input, arc characteristics, and material composition result in a different processability during the additive manufacturing process. This experimental study aims to describe the effects of the welding process on buildup accuracy and material properties during wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminum structures. Following a process development using pulse cold metal transfer (CMT-P), linear wall samples were manufactured with variations of the filler metal. The samples were analyzed in terms of surface finishing, hardness, and residual stress. Furthermore, mechanical properties were determined in different building directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)
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18 pages, 4494 KiB  
Article
Effects of Zr Addition on Thermodynamic and Kinetic Properties of Liquid Mg-6Zn-xZr Alloys
by Ye Yuan, Yuan Huang and Qiang Wei
Metals 2019, 9(5), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050607 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3193
Abstract
Mg-6Zn-xZr (ZK60) alloys are precipitation strengthened by Mg-Zn intermetallics. Therefore, it is important to investigate the thermodynamic and kinetic effects of Zr addition on formations of these reinforcement phases (Mg7Zn3, MgZn2, and MgZn) in Mg-6Zn- [...] Read more.
Mg-6Zn-xZr (ZK60) alloys are precipitation strengthened by Mg-Zn intermetallics. Therefore, it is important to investigate the thermodynamic and kinetic effects of Zr addition on formations of these reinforcement phases (Mg7Zn3, MgZn2, and MgZn) in Mg-6Zn-xZr melts. Because it is difficult to gain thermodynamic and kinetic data in melts by experiment, obtaining these data points still depends on a theoretical calculation. Based on the Miedema formation enthalpy model and the Chou model, the thermodynamic properties (the mixing enthalpies, the Gibbs free energies, and the component activities) of Mg-6Zn-xZr ternary alloys and their constitutive binary alloys are calculated. The thermodynamic effects of Zr addition on formations of Mg7Zn3, MgZn2, and MgZn are predicted. Using a ternary model for predicting diffusion coefficients, the diffusion coefficients of Zn and Zr in liquid Mg-6Zn-xZr alloys are calculated and the kinetic effects of Zr addition on the diffusion coefficient of Zn is discussed. The results show that the Zr addition can hinder the formations of Mg7Zn3, MgZn2, and MgZn inter-metallics in thermodynamics and kinetics. Full article
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19 pages, 9384 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation Analysis of New Steel Sets Used for Roadway Support in Coal Mines
by Qinghai Li, Jingkai Li, Jinpeng Zhang, Changxiang Wang, Kai Fang, Limin Liu and Wenjing Wang
Metals 2019, 9(5), 606; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050606 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2321
Abstract
The surrounding rock control is a tough issue in the roadway with the swelling soft rock. The steel set is an important material for the control of swelling soft rock roadways. However, traditional steel sets failed to prevent the expansive pressure of the [...] Read more.
The surrounding rock control is a tough issue in the roadway with the swelling soft rock. The steel set is an important material for the control of swelling soft rock roadways. However, traditional steel sets failed to prevent the expansive pressure of the soft rock. Based on traditional steel sets, this paper developed a new steel set through both theoretical analysis and numerical simulation. The results showed that the new steel set was the set with the roof beam 1000 mm from the top of the set and the floor beam 400 mm from the bottom end of the set. The maximum deformations of the roof-floor and two sides of the ventilation roadway controlled by the best-improved set at the observation point were 147 mm and 108 mm, respectively. So, the best-improved set can effectively control the surrounding rock of the ventilation roadway. This provides an effective method for the surrounding rock control in extremely soft rock roadways. Full article
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21 pages, 1016 KiB  
Article
Metallic Glasses: A New Approach to the Understanding of the Defect Structure and Physical Properties
by Vitaly Khonik and Nikolai Kobelev
Metals 2019, 9(5), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050605 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 2925
Abstract
The work is devoted to a brief overview of the Interstitialcy Theory (IT) as applied to different relaxation phenomena occurring in metallic glasses upon structural relaxation and crystallization. The basic hypotheses of the IT and their experimental verification are shortly considered. The main [...] Read more.
The work is devoted to a brief overview of the Interstitialcy Theory (IT) as applied to different relaxation phenomena occurring in metallic glasses upon structural relaxation and crystallization. The basic hypotheses of the IT and their experimental verification are shortly considered. The main focus is given on the interpretation of recent experiments on the heat effects, volume changes and their link with the shear modulus relaxation. The issues related to the development of the IT and its relationship with other models on defects in metallic glasses are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advancements in Metallic Glasses)
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11 pages, 5294 KiB  
Article
Interfacial Reaction and Microstructure Evolution of Sn-9Zn/Ni(Cu) Solder Joints
by Xuewei Zhu, Jian Peng, Xiaofeng Wei, Pengpeng Yan and Fu Wang
Metals 2019, 9(5), 604; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050604 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2750
Abstract
Sn-9Zn solder is a promising Pb-free solder, but it tends to form bulky intermetallic compounds (IMC) grains at the interface when soldered with common simple metal Cu or Ni substrates. Interfacial reaction between Sn-9Zn solder and Ni(Cu) solid solution substrates at 250 °C [...] Read more.
Sn-9Zn solder is a promising Pb-free solder, but it tends to form bulky intermetallic compounds (IMC) grains at the interface when soldered with common simple metal Cu or Ni substrates. Interfacial reaction between Sn-9Zn solder and Ni(Cu) solid solution substrates at 250 °C and 350 °C were systematically probed in this study. Results showed that when soldered at 250 °C, a Ni5Zn21 layer is formed at Sn-Zn/Ni-20Cu and Sn-Zn/Ni-40Cu joints; and Ni2Sn2Zn + Cu5Zn8 and Cu5Zn8 phases are formed in Sn-Zn/Ni-60Cu and Sn-Zn/Ni-80Cu joints, respectively. Fine-grained IMCs formed at the interface are formed even when the soldered time is prolonged to 16 h. This result indicates that Ni(Cu) solid solution substrates inhibit the rapid growth of IMC at the Sn-Zn/Ni-Cu interface. Ni(Cu) solid solution substrate can also provide various combinations of reaction products at the Sn-Zn/Ni-Cu joints. The Ni5Zn21 transfers to Ni2Sn2Zn + Cu5Zn8 phases when the Cu content increased to 60%, and a bi-layered structure Ni2Sn2Zn + Cu5Zn8 IMCs was formed in Sn-Zn/Ni(Cu) joints at 350 °C regardless of the Cu content in Ni(Cu) substrate (20–80%). These results would provide an effective support in designing Sn-Zn soldering system with optimized IMC layer to improve mechanical performance. Full article
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12 pages, 12000 KiB  
Article
Springback Calibration of a U-Shaped Electromagnetic Impulse Forming Process
by Xiaohui Cui, Zhiwu Zhang, Hailiang Yu, Xiaoting Xiao and Yongqi Cheng
Metals 2019, 9(5), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050603 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3092
Abstract
A three-dimensional (3D) finite-element model (FEM), including quasi-static stamping, sequential coupling for electromagnetic forming (EMF) and springback, was established to analyze the springback calibration by electromagnetic force. Results show that the tangential stress at the sheet bending region is reduced, and even the [...] Read more.
A three-dimensional (3D) finite-element model (FEM), including quasi-static stamping, sequential coupling for electromagnetic forming (EMF) and springback, was established to analyze the springback calibration by electromagnetic force. Results show that the tangential stress at the sheet bending region is reduced, and even the direction of tangential stress at the bending region is changed after EMF. The springback can be significantly reduced with a higher discharge voltage. The simulation results are in good agreement with the experiment results, and the simulation method has a high accuracy in predicting the springback of quasi-static stamping and electromagnetic forming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming Processes of Modern Metallic Materials)
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10 pages, 1670 KiB  
Article
Finite Fracture Mechanics Assessment in Moderate and Large Scale Yielding Regimes
by Ali Reza Torabi, Filippo Berto and Alberto Sapora
Metals 2019, 9(5), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050602 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2869
Abstract
The coupled Finite Fracture Mechanics (FFM) criteria are applied to investigate the ductile failure initiation at blunt U-notched and V-notched plates under mode I loading conditions. The FFM approaches are based on the simultaneous fulfillment of the energy balance and a stress requirement, [...] Read more.
The coupled Finite Fracture Mechanics (FFM) criteria are applied to investigate the ductile failure initiation at blunt U-notched and V-notched plates under mode I loading conditions. The FFM approaches are based on the simultaneous fulfillment of the energy balance and a stress requirement, and they involve two material properties, namely the fracture toughness and the tensile strength. Whereas the former property is obtained directly from experiments, the latter is estimated through the Equivalent Material Concept (EMC). FFM results are presented in terms of the apparent generalized fracture toughness and compared with experimental data already published in the literature related to two different aluminium alloys, Al 7075-T6 and Al 6061-T6, respectively. It is shown that FFM predictions can be accurate even under moderate or large scale yielding regimes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fracture, Fatigue and Structural Integrity of Metallic Materials)
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17 pages, 8402 KiB  
Article
Roasting Pretreatment Combined with Ultrasonic Enhanced Leaching Lead from Electrolytic Manganese Anode Mud
by Huimin Xie, Shiwei Li, Libo Zhang, Yongmi Wang and Hailin Long
Metals 2019, 9(5), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050601 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3121
Abstract
A method of conventional roasting pretreatment combined with ultrasonic enhanced leaching with ammonium acetate was proposed to solve the difficult problem of lead in electrolytic manganese anode mud. The effects of concentration, liquid–solid ratio, temperature, leaching time and rotating speed on the leaching [...] Read more.
A method of conventional roasting pretreatment combined with ultrasonic enhanced leaching with ammonium acetate was proposed to solve the difficult problem of lead in electrolytic manganese anode mud. The effects of concentration, liquid–solid ratio, temperature, leaching time and rotating speed on the leaching process under conventional and ultrasonic conditions were studied, and the lead leaching rate can be as high as 93.09% under optimized process parameters. A leaching kinetic model under conventional and ultrasonic conditions was established to explore the restrictive links of the leaching process. The results show that the leaching process under both conventional and ultrasonic conditions is controlled by diffusion, and the activation energies are 29.40 kJ/mol and 26.95 kJ/mol for the conventional and ultrasound enhance leaching processes, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Removal and Recycling)
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15 pages, 18518 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of Jet Slurry Erosion of Martensitic Stainless Steel with Tungsten Carbide HVOF Coating
by Galileo Santacruz, Antonio Shigueaki Takimi, Felipe Vannucchi de Camargo, Carlos Pérez Bergmann and Cristiano Fragassa
Metals 2019, 9(5), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050600 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4315
Abstract
This work evaluates the behavior of a martensitic stainless steel (AISI 410) thermally treated by quenching and tempering with a tungsten carbide (86WC-10Co-4Cr) coating obtained by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray deposition, analyzing the volume loss under erosive attacks at 30 [...] Read more.
This work evaluates the behavior of a martensitic stainless steel (AISI 410) thermally treated by quenching and tempering with a tungsten carbide (86WC-10Co-4Cr) coating obtained by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray deposition, analyzing the volume loss under erosive attacks at 30 ∘ and 90 ∘ incidence angles by using jet slurry erosion equipment with electrofused alumina erodent particles. Firstly, the characterization of the samples was carried out in terms of the microstructure (SEM), thickness, roughness, porosity, and microhardness. Then, samples were structurally characterized in the identification of the phases (XRD and EDS) present in the coating, as well as the particle size distribution (LG) and morphology of the erodent. It was determined that the tungsten carbide coating presented better resistance to jet slurry erosion wear when compared to the martensitic stainless steel analyzed, which is approximately two times higher for the 30 ∘ angle. The more ductile and brittle natures of the substrate and the coating, respectively, were evidenced by their higher volumetric erosion at 30 ∘ for the first and 90 ∘ for the latter, as well as their particular material removal mechanisms. The enhanced resistance of the coating is mainly attributed to its low porosity and high WC-Co content, resulting in elevated mechanical resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Design by Metallic Materials: Synthesis, Characterization, Simulation and Applications)
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14 pages, 7325 KiB  
Article
Tooth Root Bending Fatigue Strength of High-Density Sintered Small-Module Spur Gears: The Effect of Porosity and Microstructure
by Vigilio Fontanari, Alberto Molinari, Michelangelo Marini, Wolfgang Pahl and Matteo Benedetti
Metals 2019, 9(5), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050599 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3421
Abstract
The present paper is aimed at investigating the effect of porosity and microstructure on tooth root bending fatigue of small-module spur gears produced by powder metallurgy (P/M). Specifically, three steel variants differing in powder composition and alloying route were subjected either to case-hardening [...] Read more.
The present paper is aimed at investigating the effect of porosity and microstructure on tooth root bending fatigue of small-module spur gears produced by powder metallurgy (P/M). Specifically, three steel variants differing in powder composition and alloying route were subjected either to case-hardening or sinter-hardening. The obtained results were interpreted in light of microstructural and fractographic inspections. On the basis of the Murakami a r e a method, it was found that fatigue strength is mainly dictated by the largest near-surface defect and by the hardness of the softest microstructural constituent. Owing to the very complicated shape of the critical pore, it was found that its maximum Feret diameter is the geometrical parameter that best captures the detrimental effect on fatigue. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue Design and Defects in Metals and Alloys)
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32 pages, 9799 KiB  
Review
A Review on Heterogeneous Nanostructures: A Strategy for Superior Mechanical Properties in Metals
by Yan Ma, Muxin Yang, Fuping Yuan and Xiaolei Wu
Metals 2019, 9(5), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050598 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 48 | Viewed by 6185
Abstract
Generally, strength and ductility are mutually exclusive in homogeneous metals. Nanostructured metals can have much higher strength when compared to their coarse-grained counterparts, while simple microstructure refinement to nanoscale generally results in poor strain hardening and limited ductility. In recent years, heterogeneous nanostructures [...] Read more.
Generally, strength and ductility are mutually exclusive in homogeneous metals. Nanostructured metals can have much higher strength when compared to their coarse-grained counterparts, while simple microstructure refinement to nanoscale generally results in poor strain hardening and limited ductility. In recent years, heterogeneous nanostructures in metals have been proven to be a new strategy to achieve unprecedented mechanical properties that are not accessible to their homogeneous counterparts. Here, we review recent advances in overcoming this strength–ductility trade-off by the designs of several heterogeneous nanostructures in metals: heterogeneous grain/lamellar/phase structures, gradient structure, nanotwinned structure and structure with nanoprecipitates. These structural heterogeneities can induce stress/strain partitioning between domains with dramatically different strengths, strain gradients and geometrically necessary dislocations near domain interfaces, and back-stress strengthening/hardening for high strength and large ductility. This review also provides the guideline for optimizing the mechanical properties in heterogeneous nanostructures by highlighting future challenges and opportunities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strengthening Mechanisms in Metallic Materials)
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12 pages, 2440 KiB  
Article
Biomechanical Assessment of Design Parameters on a Self-Developed 3D-Printed Titanium-Alloy Reconstruction/Prosthetic Implant for Mandibular Segmental Osteotomy Defect
by Sheng-Ni Huang, Ming-You Shie, Yen-Wen Shen, Jui-Ting Hsu, Heng-Li Huang and Lih-Jyh Fuh
Metals 2019, 9(5), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050597 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2954
Abstract
Patients with oral cancer often have to undergo the surgery for mandibular excision. Once the bone in the cancerous area is removed, not only the facial area but also chewing function of the patient is needed to be repaired by clinicians. In recent [...] Read more.
Patients with oral cancer often have to undergo the surgery for mandibular excision. Once the bone in the cancerous area is removed, not only the facial area but also chewing function of the patient is needed to be repaired by clinicians. In recent years, the rapid growth of three-dimensional (3D) metal printing technology has meant that higher-quality facial reconstructions are now possible, which could even restore chewing function. This study developed 3D-printed titanium (Ti)-alloy reconstruction implant for a prosthesis designed for mandibular segmental osteotomy defects, and 3D finite element (FE) analysis was conducted to evaluate its biomechanical performance. The analyzed parameters in the FE models were as follows: (1) two prosthesis designs, namely a prosthesis retaining the residual mandibular bone (for patients with mild oral cancer) and a prosthesis with complete mandibular resection (for patients with severe oral cancer); (2) two lengths of prosthesis, namely 20 and 25 mm; and (3) three thicknesses of prosthesis, namely 0.8, 1, and 1.5 mm. A 45° lateral bite force (100 N) was applied to the top of the prosthesis as the loading condition. The results revealed that for the two prosthesis designs, the prosthesis retaining the residual mandibular bone showed higher stress on the prosthesis and cortical bone compared with the prosthesis with complete mandibular resection. Regarding the two prosthesis lengths, no fixed trend of prosthesis stress was found, but stress in the cortical bone was relatively high for a prosthesis length of 20 mm compared with that of 25 mm. For the three prosthesis thicknesses, as the thickness of the prosthesis decreased, the stress in the prosthesis decreased but the stress in the cortical bone increased. These findings require confirmation in future clinical investigations. Full article
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17 pages, 5990 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Depth of Immersion of the Submerged Entry Nozzle on the Oscillations of the Meniscus in a Continuous Casting Mold
by F. Saldaña-Salas, E. Torres-Alonso, J.A. Ramos-Banderas, G. Solorio-Díaz and C.A. Hernández-Bocanegra
Metals 2019, 9(5), 596; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050596 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3212
Abstract
In this study the effects of the depth of immersion of the Submerged Entry Nozzles (SEN) on the fluid-dynamic structure, oscillations of the free surface and opening of the slag layer, in a continuous casting mold for conventional slab of steel were analyzed. [...] Read more.
In this study the effects of the depth of immersion of the Submerged Entry Nozzles (SEN) on the fluid-dynamic structure, oscillations of the free surface and opening of the slag layer, in a continuous casting mold for conventional slab of steel were analyzed. For this work, a water/oil/air system was used in a 1:1 scale model, using the techniques of Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), colorimetry and mathematical multiphase simulation. The results of the fluid dynamics by PIV agree with those obtained in the mathematical simulation, as well as with the dispersion of dye. It was observed that working with immersion depths of 100 mm or less could be detrimental to steel quality because they promote surface oscillations of a higher degree of Stokes with high elevations and asymmetry in their three dimensions. In addition, this generates an excessive opening of the oil layer which was corroborated through the quantification of the F index. On the other hand, with depths of immersion in the range of 150–200 mm, lower oscillations were obtained as well as zones of low speed near the wall of the SEN and a smaller opening of the oil layer. Full article
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19 pages, 9612 KiB  
Article
A Novel Damage Model to Predict Ductile Fracture Behavior for Anisotropic Sheet Metal
by Hua Zhang, Hong Zhang, Fuguo Li and Jun Cao
Metals 2019, 9(5), 595; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050595 - 23 May 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3696
Abstract
The purpose of the present work is to investigate the fracture behavior of anisotropic sheet metal under various stress states. Notched tension and flat-grooved tension tests at 0°, 45°, and 90° directions with respect to rolling direction were carried out by a hybrid [...] Read more.
The purpose of the present work is to investigate the fracture behavior of anisotropic sheet metal under various stress states. Notched tension and flat-grooved tension tests at 0°, 45°, and 90° directions with respect to rolling direction were carried out by a hybrid experimental–numerical approach, and then a novel damage model was proposed by coupling Hill48’s criterion. Based on this, finite element method (FEM) analysis models were established. The force–displacement responses of experiments and simulations are in good agreement, which verify the FEM models. The predictability of the damage model established for the fracture behavior of anisotropic materials was studied by comparing the fracture displacements between experiments and simulations. It is found that the predictability of novel damage model is basically consistent with predictive results. The difference of damage locations and local strain evolutions at a 45° direction is greater than the other directions. In addition, stress triaxiality does not play a predominant role in the fracture process for notched tension specimens, while it does play a predominant role for flat-grooved tension specimens. Full article
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10 pages, 5367 KiB  
Article
Improvement of Filler Wire Dilution Using External Oscillating Magnetic Field at Full Penetration Hybrid Laser-Arc Welding of Thick Materials
by Ömer Üstündağ, Vjaceslav Avilov, Andrey Gumenyuk and Michael Rethmeier
Metals 2019, 9(5), 594; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050594 - 23 May 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3537
Abstract
Hybrid laser-arc welding offers many advantages, such as deep penetration, good gap bridge-ability, and low distortion due to reduced heat input. The filler wire which is supplied to the process is used to influence the microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld seam. [...] Read more.
Hybrid laser-arc welding offers many advantages, such as deep penetration, good gap bridge-ability, and low distortion due to reduced heat input. The filler wire which is supplied to the process is used to influence the microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld seam. A typical problem in deep penetration high-power laser beam welding with filler wire and hybrid laser-arc welding is an insufficient mixing of filler material in the weld pool, leading to a non-uniform element distribution in the seam. In this study, oscillating magnetic fields were used to form a non-conservative component of the Lorentz force in the weld pool to improve the element distribution over the entire thickness of the material. Full penetration hybrid laser-arc welds were performed on 20-mm-thick S355J2 steel plates with a nickel-based wire for different arrangements of the oscillating magnetic field. The Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) data for the distribution of two tracing elements (Ni and Cr) were used to analyze the homogeneity of dilution of the filler wire. With a 30° turn of the magnetic field to the welding direction, a radical improvement in the filler material distribution was demonstrated. This would lead to an improvement of the mechanical properties with the use of a suitable filler wire. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Stirring Technique in Metallurgy and Material Processing)
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12 pages, 6004 KiB  
Article
Study on Microstructure and Properties of Tailored Hot-Stamped U-shaped Parts Based on Temperature Field Control
by Xiangji Li, Limei Xiao, Qifeng Zheng, Huan Zhang and Yanjiao Gu
Metals 2019, 9(5), 593; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050593 - 23 May 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2525
Abstract
In order to meet the needs of the automotive industry, it is necessary to produce “tailored” parts. The U-shaped die equipped with a high-speed airflow device was designed to conduct the hot stamping experiments. The microstructure, micro-hardness, tensile properties, and fracture behavior of [...] Read more.
In order to meet the needs of the automotive industry, it is necessary to produce “tailored” parts. The U-shaped die equipped with a high-speed airflow device was designed to conduct the hot stamping experiments. The microstructure, micro-hardness, tensile properties, and fracture behavior of the parts were analyzed. The experimental results showed that the quenched phase of the hardened section was mainly martensite, and the micro-hardness and tensile strength could reach 445 HV and 1454 MPa, respectively. The fracture mechanism was brittle fracture. For the toughness section, as the tool temperature increased from 300 to 600 °C, both micro-hardness and tensile strength decreased. Meanwhile, the area fractions of bainite and ferrite increased, and the area fraction of martensite reduced. The fracture behavior was plastic fracture. Full article
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21 pages, 24828 KiB  
Article
Development of High-Fidelity Imaging Procedures to Establish the Local Material Behavior in Friction Stir Welded Stainless Steel Joints
by S. Ramachandran, A. K. Lakshminarayanan, P. A. S. Reed and J. M. Dulieu-Barton
Metals 2019, 9(5), 592; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050592 - 23 May 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3542
Abstract
Friction stir welded (FSW) 304 austenitic stainless steel (SS) joints are studied using a range of microstructural characterization techniques to identify various sub-regions across the weld. A high-resolution (HR) 2D-digital image correlation (DIC) methodology is developed to assess the local strain response across [...] Read more.
Friction stir welded (FSW) 304 austenitic stainless steel (SS) joints are studied using a range of microstructural characterization techniques to identify various sub-regions across the weld. A high-resolution (HR) 2D-digital image correlation (DIC) methodology is developed to assess the local strain response across the weld surface and cross-section in the elastic regime. The HR-DIC methodology includes the stitching of multiple images, as it is only possible to partially cover the FSW region using a single camera with the high-resolution optical set-up. An image processing procedure is described to stitch the strain maps as well as strain data sets that allow full-field strain to be visualized and interrogated over the entire FSW region. It is demonstrated that the strains derived from the DIC can be associated with the local weld geometry and the material microstructure in the region of the FSW. The procedure is validated in the material elastic range and provides an important first step in enabling detailed mechanical assessments of the local effects in the FSW process. Full article
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17 pages, 21336 KiB  
Article
Effect of Temperature on the Corrosion Behavior of Biodegradable AZ31B Magnesium Alloy in Ringer’s Physiological Solution
by Sebastian Feliu, Jr., Lucien Veleva and Federico García-Galvan
Metals 2019, 9(5), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050591 - 22 May 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4093
Abstract
In this work, the corrosion behaviors of the AZ31B alloy in Ringer’s solution at 20 °C and 37 °C were compared over four days to better understand the influence of temperature and immersion time on corrosion rate. The corrosion products on the surfaces [...] Read more.
In this work, the corrosion behaviors of the AZ31B alloy in Ringer’s solution at 20 °C and 37 °C were compared over four days to better understand the influence of temperature and immersion time on corrosion rate. The corrosion products on the surfaces of the AZ31B alloys were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) provided information about the protective properties of the corrosion layers. A significant acceleration in corrosion rate with increasing temperature was measured using mass loss and evolved hydrogen methods. This temperature effect was directly related to the changes in chemical composition and thickness of the Al-rich corrosion layer formed on the surface of the AZ31B alloy. At 20 °C, the presence of a thick (micrometer scale) Al-rich corrosion layer on the surface reduced the corrosion rate in Ringer’s solution over time. At 37 °C, the incorporation of additional Mg and Al compounds containing Cl into the Al-rich corrosion layer was observed in the early stages of exposure to Ringer’s solution. At 37 °C, a significant decrease in the thickness of this corrosion layer was noted after four days. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Chemistry and Corrosion of Light Alloys)
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18 pages, 5877 KiB  
Review
Effects of Different Parameters on Initiation and Propagation of Stress Corrosion Cracks in Pipeline Steels: A Review
by M.A. Mohtadi-Bonab
Metals 2019, 9(5), 590; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050590 - 22 May 2019
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 7683
Abstract
The demand for pipeline steels has increased in the last several decades since they were able to provide an immune and economical way to carry oil and natural gas over long distances. There are two important damage modes in pipeline steels including stress [...] Read more.
The demand for pipeline steels has increased in the last several decades since they were able to provide an immune and economical way to carry oil and natural gas over long distances. There are two important damage modes in pipeline steels including stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen induced cracking (HIC). The SCC cracks are those cracks which are induced due to the combined effects of a corrosive environment and sustained tensile stress. The present review article is an attempt to highlight important factors affecting the SCC in pipeline steels. Based on a literature survey, it is concluded that many factors, such as microstructure of steel, residual stresses, chemical composition of steel, applied load, alternating current (AC) current and texture, and grain boundary character affect the SCC crack initiation and propagation in pipeline steels. It is also found that crystallographic texture plays a key role in crack propagation. Grain boundaries associated with {111}∥rolling plane, {110}∥rolling plane, coincidence site lattice boundaries and low angle grain boundaries are recognized as crack resistant paths while grains with high angle grain boundaries provide easy path for the SCC intergranular crack propagation. Finally, the SCC resistance in pipeline steels is improved by modifying the microstructure of steel or controlling the texture and grain boundary character. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion and Protection of Metals)
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11 pages, 3951 KiB  
Article
Influence of Niobium or Molybdenum Addition on Microstructure and Tensile Properties of Nickel-Chromium Alloys
by Marisa Aparecida de Souza, Bárbara de Oliveira Fiorin, Tomaz Manabu Hashimoto, Ana Paula Rosifini, Carlos Angelo Nunes, Carlos Antônio Reis Pereira Baptista and Alfeu Saraiva Ramos
Metals 2019, 9(5), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050589 - 22 May 2019
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3514
Abstract
This work discusses on influence of niobium or molybdenum addition on microstructure and tensile properties of NiCr-based dental alloys. In this regard, the Ni-24Cr-8Nb, Ni-22Cr-10Nb and Ni-20Cr-12Nb (wt. %) alloys produced by arc melting process. To compare the typical Ni-22Cr-10Mo dental alloy was [...] Read more.
This work discusses on influence of niobium or molybdenum addition on microstructure and tensile properties of NiCr-based dental alloys. In this regard, the Ni-24Cr-8Nb, Ni-22Cr-10Nb and Ni-20Cr-12Nb (wt. %) alloys produced by arc melting process. To compare the typical Ni-22Cr-10Mo dental alloy was also produced. These ternary alloys were analyzed by chemical analyses, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron dispersive spectrometry (EDS), thermogravimetric analysis (TG), Vickers hardness and tensile tests. Although the mass losses of the samples during arc melting, the optical emission spectrometry showed that the initial compositions were kept. The Ni-22Cr-10Mo alloy produced a matrix of Niss (ss—solid solution), whereas Ni3Nb disperse in a Niss matrix was also identified in Ni-Cr-Nb alloys. Excepting for the Ni-22Cr-10Nb alloy with mass gain of 0.23%, the as-cast Ni-Cr alloys presented mass gains close to 0.4% after heating up to 1000 °C under synthetic airflow. The hardness values, the modulus of elasticity, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength have enhanced, whereas the ductility was reduced with increasing niobium addition of up to 12 wt.-%.The Ni-22Cr-10Mo alloy presented an intergranular fracture mechanism containing deep dimples and quasi-cleavage planes, whereas the shallow dimples were identified on fracture surface of the as-cast Nb-richer Ni-Cr alloys due to the presence of higher Ni3Nb amounts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Modelling and Simulation of Metal Processing)
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17 pages, 5504 KiB  
Article
Optimization and Validation of Sound Absorption Performance of 10-Layer Gradient Compressed Porous Metal
by Fei Yang, Xinmin Shen, Panfeng Bai, Xiaonan Zhang, Zhizhong Li and Qin Yin
Metals 2019, 9(5), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050588 - 21 May 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3144
Abstract
Sound absorption performance of a porous metal can be improved by compression and optimal permutation, which is favorable to promote its application in noise reduction. The 10-layer gradient compressed porous metal was proposed to obtain optimal sound absorption performance. A theoretical model of [...] Read more.
Sound absorption performance of a porous metal can be improved by compression and optimal permutation, which is favorable to promote its application in noise reduction. The 10-layer gradient compressed porous metal was proposed to obtain optimal sound absorption performance. A theoretical model of the sound absorption coefficient of the multilayer gradient compressed porous metal was constructed according to the Johnson-Champoux-Allard model. Optimal parameters for the best sound absorption performance of the 10-layer gradient compressed porous metal were achieved by a cuckoo search algorithm with the varied constraint conditions. Preliminary verification of the optimal sound absorber was conducted by the finite element simulation, and further experimental validation was obtained through the standing wave tube measurement. Consistencies among the theoretical data, the simulation data, and the experimental data proved accuracies of the theoretical sound absorption model, the cuckoo search optimization algorithm, and the finite element simulation method. For the investigated frequency ranges of 100–1000 Hz, 100–2000 Hz, 100–4000 Hz, and 100–6000 Hz, actual average sound absorption coefficients of optimal 10-layer gradient compressed porous metal were 0.3325, 0.5412, 0.7461, and 0.7617, respectively, which exhibited the larger sound absorption coefficients relative to those of the original porous metals and uniform 10-layer compressed porous metal with the same thickness of 20 mm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Metals: Fabrication, Properties and Applications)
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18 pages, 987 KiB  
Article
A Prediction Model for Internal Cracks during Slab Continuous Casting
by Yiwen Kong, Dengfu Chen, Qiang Liu and Mujun Long
Metals 2019, 9(5), 587; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050587 - 21 May 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4996
Abstract
Slab continuous casting internal cracking is a common quality defect in the production process. The ability to predict the quality of each continuous casting product and assess whether it is suitable for hot delivery or needs to be cleaned down will greatly increase [...] Read more.
Slab continuous casting internal cracking is a common quality defect in the production process. The ability to predict the quality of each continuous casting product and assess whether it is suitable for hot delivery or needs to be cleaned down will greatly increase the rolled product rate and reduce the scrap rate and production management cost. According to the quality defects of internal cracks during slab continuous casting and based on the solidification and heat transfer simulations, stress and strain calculations and theoretical analysis of metallurgical processes related to continuous casting combined with an abnormal casting event expert system, the internal crack generation index of the slice unit is used to predict the crack occurrence rating of each sized slab. Moreover, the internal crack prediction model for the slab is successfully developed and applied in a domestic steel mill. The accuracy of the model prediction reached 86.85%. This method achieved the organic combination of theoretical analysis and an expert system and provides an important theoretical tool for the prediction of crack quality defects in slab continuous casting; the method can be applied in slab continuous casting production. Full article
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