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Minerals, Volume 6, Issue 1 (March 2016) – 23 articles

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301 KiB  
Review
Copper Bioleaching in Chile
by Juan Carlos Gentina and Fernando Acevedo
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010023 - 16 Mar 2016
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 16207
Abstract
Chile has a great tradition of producing and exporting copper. Over the last several decades, it has become the first producer on an international level. Its copper reserves are also the most important on the planet. However, after years of mineral exploitation, the [...] Read more.
Chile has a great tradition of producing and exporting copper. Over the last several decades, it has become the first producer on an international level. Its copper reserves are also the most important on the planet. However, after years of mineral exploitation, the ease of extracting copper oxides and ore copper content has diminished. To keep the production level high, the introduction of new technologies has become necessary. One that has been successful is bioleaching. Chile had the first commercial operation in the world exclusively via bioleaching copper sulfides. Nowadays, all bioleaching operations run in the country contribute to an estimated 10% of total copper production. This article presents antecedents that have contributed to the development of copper bioleaching in Chile. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biohydrometallurgy)
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5267 KiB  
Article
The Growth of Gypsum in the Presence of Hexavalent Chromium: A Multiscale Study
by Juan Morales, José Manuel Astilleros, Emilio Matesanz and Lurdes Fernández-Díaz
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010022 - 15 Mar 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5130
Abstract
The sorption of dissolved inorganic pollutants into the structure of minerals is an important process that controls the mobility and fate of these pollutants in the Earth’s crust. It also modifies the surface structure and composition of the host mineral, affecting its crystallization [...] Read more.
The sorption of dissolved inorganic pollutants into the structure of minerals is an important process that controls the mobility and fate of these pollutants in the Earth’s crust. It also modifies the surface structure and composition of the host mineral, affecting its crystallization kinetics. Here, we investigate the effect of hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI), on the nucleation and growth of gypsum by conducting two types of experiments: (i) in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) observations of the growth of gypsum {010} surfaces in the presence of Cr(VI) and (ii) gypsum precipitation experiments by mixing aqueous solutions containing variable amounts of Cr(VI). Gypsum precipitation is progressively delayed when occurring from solutions bearing increasing Cr(VI) concentrations. Chemical analyses of gypsum precipitates show that gypsum incorporates small Cr(VI) amounts that correlate with the content of this ion in the aqueous solution. Gypsum cell parameters variation reflects this incorporation. At the molecular scale, Cr(VI) induces a slowdown of step advance rates on gypsum {010} surfaces accompanied by the roughening of nanostep edges and the so-called “template effect”. This effect involves the reproduction of the original nanotopography after the completion of individual advancing monolayers and appears as a general nanoscale phenomenon occurring during growth of solid solutions from aqueous solutions even in the case of compositionally-restricted solid solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Surface Science and Nanogeoscience)
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1889 KiB  
Article
A Solid State NMR Investigation of Recent Marine Siliceous Sponge Spicules
by Sylvie Masse, Andrzej Pisera, Guillaume Laurent and Thibaud Coradin
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010021 - 10 Mar 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7102
Abstract
The composition of four recent siliceous marine sponge spicules was studied and compared. In particular, multinuclear (29Si, 13C, 31P) solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) allowed the characterization of both the mineral and organic constituents in a non-destructive manner. [...] Read more.
The composition of four recent siliceous marine sponge spicules was studied and compared. In particular, multinuclear (29Si, 13C, 31P) solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) allowed the characterization of both the mineral and organic constituents in a non-destructive manner. The silica network condensation was similar for all samples. The organic matter showed a similar pattern but varied in abundance as a function of the sponge group (Hexactinellida or Demospongiae) and sampling conditions (living or dead organisms). This indicates that the striking morphological differences observed at the macroscale for the various samples do not lead to significant fingerprints in the spectroscopic signatures of the mineral and organic constituents. Full article
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5132 KiB  
Article
Chemical Environment of Unusually Ge- and Pb-Rich Willemite, Tres Marias Mine, Mexico
by Bernhardt Saini-Eidukat, Frank Melcher, Jörg Göttlicher and Ralph Steininger
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010020 - 09 Mar 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5742
Abstract
The Tres Marias carbonate-hosted Zn-Ge deposit in Chihuahua, Mexico contains willemite [Zn2SiO4] with unusually high concentrations of minor and trace elements (e.g., Pb, Ge, As, P, V); Pb concentrations are as high as 2 wt %, and Ge may [...] Read more.
The Tres Marias carbonate-hosted Zn-Ge deposit in Chihuahua, Mexico contains willemite [Zn2SiO4] with unusually high concentrations of minor and trace elements (e.g., Pb, Ge, As, P, V); Pb concentrations are as high as 2 wt %, and Ge may reach 4000 ppm (average 900 ppm). Electron microprobe analyses and synchrotron X-ray fluorescence maps show that Zn and Ge, as well as Zn and Pb are negatively correlated, whereas Ge and Pb are positively correlated across zoned willemite crystals. In cathodoluminescence (CL) images, those areas of willemite having high trace element concentrations have no, or low CL intensities, whereas zones low in trace elements (except for P) display bright blue CL colors. X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy was used to characterize the chemical nature of Ge and Pb in willemite. Comparisons to reference spectra of natural and artificial substances points to the presence of Ge4+ and Pb2+ in Tres Marias willemite. No evidence for Pb4+ was detected. Oscillatory zonation reflects trace element incorporation into willemite from the oxidation of primary Ge-bearing sphalerite and galena (PbS) by siliceous aqueous fluids. Full article
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3625 KiB  
Article
Composition and Formation of Gabbro-Peridotite Hosted Seafloor Massive Sulfide Deposits from the Ashadze-1 Hydrothermal Field, Mid-Atlantic Ridge
by Anna Firstova, Tamara Stepanova, Georgy Cherkashov, Alexey Goncharov and Svetlana Babaeva
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010019 - 08 Mar 2016
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7910
Abstract
This paper presents mineralogical and geochemical data on seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) from the Ashadze-1 hydrothermal field at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). The Ashadze-1 deposit is associated with the uplifted lower crust and upper mantle (oceanic core complex, OCC) of the MAR segment [...] Read more.
This paper presents mineralogical and geochemical data on seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) from the Ashadze-1 hydrothermal field at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). The Ashadze-1 deposit is associated with the uplifted lower crust and upper mantle (oceanic core complex, OCC) of the MAR segment characterized by asymmetric mode of accretion. The OCC is represented by deep-seated gabbro-peridotite rocks exhumed on the rift valley slope along the detachment fault, during seafloor spreading. Hydrothermal processes in OCC environments result in different deposit composition and morphology compared to basalt-hosted systems. Abundant chimneys and enrichment in particular metals, including copper, zinc, gold, cobalt and tin are typical for this type of SMS deposit. The Ashadze-1 deposit is considered an example of a hydrothermal system in the initial stage of evolution marked by the young age of the sulfides (<7.2 kyr). The mineralogy of Ashadze-1 reflects primary ore-forming processes unaffected by post formation alteration. We propose a model for the primary ore-forming hydrothermal process in an ultramafic-hosted environment on the modern seafloor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Minerals: From Genesis to Resources)
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956 KiB  
Article
Identifying the Presence of AMD-Derived Soil CO2 in Field Investigations Using Isotope Ratios
by Kwame Awuah-Offei, Moagabo Mathiba and Fred J. Baldassare
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010018 - 03 Mar 2016
Viewed by 3402
Abstract
Recent incidents of hazardous accumulations of CO2 in homes on or adjacent to reclaimed mine land have been shown to be linked to neutralization reactions between acidic mine drainage and carbonate material. An efficient and economic method is necessary to identify the [...] Read more.
Recent incidents of hazardous accumulations of CO2 in homes on or adjacent to reclaimed mine land have been shown to be linked to neutralization reactions between acidic mine drainage and carbonate material. An efficient and economic method is necessary to identify the presence of acid mine drainage- (AMD-) derived CO2 on reclaimed mine land, prior to construction. One approach to identify the presence of AMD-derived CO2 is to characterize stable carbon isotope ratios of soil CO2. To do so, a viable method is necessary to acquire soil gas samples for isotope ratio analysis. This paper presents preliminary investigations of the effectiveness of two methods of acquiring gas samples (sampling during soil flux measurements and using slam bar) for isotope analysis. The results indicate that direct soil gas sampling is cheaper and provides better results. Neither method is adequate without accounting for temporal effects due to changing gas transport mechanisms. These results have significant implications for safe post-mining land uses and future investigations of leakages from geologic carbon sequestration sites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Surface Mining Research)
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6298 KiB  
Article
Uncertainty Representation Method for Open Pit Optimization Results Due to Variation in Mineral Prices
by Jieun Baek, Yosoon Choi and Han-su Park
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010017 - 24 Feb 2016
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7010
Abstract
This study proposes a new method to quantitatively represent the uncertainty existing in open pit optimization results due to variations in mineral prices. After generating multiple mineral prices using Monte Carlo simulation with data on past mineral prices, a probability model that represents [...] Read more.
This study proposes a new method to quantitatively represent the uncertainty existing in open pit optimization results due to variations in mineral prices. After generating multiple mineral prices using Monte Carlo simulation with data on past mineral prices, a probability model that represents the uncertainty was developed by integrating multiple open pit optimization results derived from the mineral prices. The results of applying the proposed method to the copper-zinc deposits showed that significant uncertainty exists in open pit optimization results due to the variation in copper prices. It was also found that the method has a potential as a tool for classifying the estimation results of ore reserve based on confidence level. Full article
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4626 KiB  
Article
Porosity and Permeability of Round Top Mountain Rhyolite (Texas, USA) Favor Coarse Crush Size for Rare Earth Element Heap Leach
by Lorraine Negron, Nicholas Pingitore and Daniel Gorski
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010016 - 24 Feb 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6881
Abstract
Water-saturation porosity and dye-penetration permeability measurements of Round Top Mountain rhyolite confirm that a ½-inch (13-mm) crush size would permit efficient acid heap leaching of yttrium and heavy rare earth elements (YHREEs) hosted in yttrofluorite, a YHREE-substituted variety of fluorite. Laboratory acid leaching [...] Read more.
Water-saturation porosity and dye-penetration permeability measurements of Round Top Mountain rhyolite confirm that a ½-inch (13-mm) crush size would permit efficient acid heap leaching of yttrium and heavy rare earth elements (YHREEs) hosted in yttrofluorite, a YHREE-substituted variety of fluorite. Laboratory acid leaching has extracted up to 90% of the YHREEs. The bulk insoluble gangue mineralogy of the rhyolite, 90% to 95% quartz and feldspars, assures low acid consumption. Different crush sizes were weighed, soaked in water, and reweighed over time to determine water-penetration estimated porosity. Typical porosities were 1% to 2% for gray and 3% to 8% for pink varieties of Round Top rhyolite. The same samples were re-tested after soaking in dilute sulfuric to simulate heap leaching effects. Post-leach porosity favorably increased 15% in pink and 50% in gray varieties, due to internal mineral dissolution. Next, drops of water-based writing ink were placed on rhyolite slabs up to ~10 mm thick, and monitored over time for visual dye breakthrough to the lower side. Ink penetration through 0.5 to 2.5-mm-thick slabs was rapid, with breakthrough in minutes to a few hours. Pink rhyolite breakthrough was faster than gray. Thicker slabs, 4 to 10 mm, took hours to three days for breakthrough. Porosity and permeability of the Round Top rhyolite and acid solubility of the yttrofluorite host should permit liberation of YHREEs from the bulk rock by inexpensive heap leaching at a coarse and inexpensive nominal ½-inch (13-mm) crush size. The rate-limiting step in heap leach extraction would be diffusion of acid into, and back-diffusion of dissolution products out of, the crushed particles. The exceptional porosity and permeability that we document at Round Top suggest that there may be other crystalline rock deposits that economically can be exploited by a coarse-crush bulk heap leach approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Surface Mining Research)
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2898 KiB  
Article
Lead-Antimony Sulfosalts from Tuscany (Italy). XX. Members of the Jordanite–Geocronite Series from the Pollone Mine, Valdicastello Carducci: Occurrence and Crystal Structures
by Cristian Biagioni, Andrea Dini, Paolo Orlandi, Yves Moëlo, Marco Pasero and Federica Zaccarini
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010015 - 19 Feb 2016
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6876
Abstract
A crystal-chemical study of historical specimens as well as new ones belonging to the jordanite–geocronite series from the Pollone baryte + pyrite ± (Pb-Zn-Ag) ore deposit (Valdicastello Carducci, Apuan Alps, Tuscany, Italy) has been performed. These crystals were collected in quartz extension veins [...] Read more.
A crystal-chemical study of historical specimens as well as new ones belonging to the jordanite–geocronite series from the Pollone baryte + pyrite ± (Pb-Zn-Ag) ore deposit (Valdicastello Carducci, Apuan Alps, Tuscany, Italy) has been performed. These crystals were collected in quartz extension veins embedded in three different occurrences: (i) baryte + pyrite orebodies; (ii) schist layers interbedded between baryte + pyrite orebodies; and (iii) schists at the contact with pyrite-poor baryte orebodies. Electron-microprobe data indicated the occurrence of three distinct groups of compositions within the sample suite. These correspond to As-bearing geocronite, Sb-rich jordanite, and Sb-bearing jordanite, with mean compositions Pb14Sb3.8As2.2S23, Pb14Sb2.9As3.1S23, and Pb14Sb2.6As3.4S23, respectively. Crystals representative of these different compositions have been investigated through single-crystal X-Ray diffraction studies and their crystal structures have been solved to R1 = 0.078, 0.069, and 0.033, respectively. The unit-cell volume decreases passing through As-bearing geocronite (V = 2149.5(3) Å3) to Sb-bearing jordanite (V = 2132.3(3) Å3). The As-to-Sb substitution takes place preferentially at the Sb4 site; through the increasing of the Sb content, Sb can substitute As also at the As6 site. According to the structural study of the ore deposit, formation of jordanite–geocronite is subordinated to a late Alpine deformative D2 stage, which permitted in situ remobilization of preexisting sulfide ore in small quartz extension veins. Such a local recrystallization would explain the variability of the As/(As + Sb) ratio of the members of the jordanite series, reflecting the heterogeneity of the orebody. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Accessory Minerals)
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3060 KiB  
Article
Structural Characterization of Iron Meteorites through Neutron Tomography
by Stefano Caporali, Francesco Grazzi, Filomena Salvemini, Ulf Garbe, Steven Peetermans and Giovanni Pratesi
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010014 - 19 Feb 2016
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5955
Abstract
In this communication, we demonstrate the use of neutron tomography for the structural characterization of iron meteorites. These materials prevalently consist of metallic iron with variable nickel content. Their study and classification is traditionally based on chemical and structural analysis. The latter requires [...] Read more.
In this communication, we demonstrate the use of neutron tomography for the structural characterization of iron meteorites. These materials prevalently consist of metallic iron with variable nickel content. Their study and classification is traditionally based on chemical and structural analysis. The latter requires cutting, polishing and chemical etching of large slabs of the sample in order to determine the average width of the largest kamacite lamellae. Although this approach is useful to infer the genetical history of these meteorites, it is not applicable to small or precious samples. On the base of different attenuation coefficient of cold neutrons for nickel and iron, neutron tomography allows the reconstruction of the Ni-rich (taenite) and Ni-poor (kamacite) metallic phases. Therefore, the measure of the average width of the largest kamacite lamellae could be determined in a non-destructive way. Furthermore, the size, shape, and spatial correlation between kamacite and taenite crystals were obtained more efficiently and accurately than via metallographic investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Meteorites and Cosmic Mineralogy)
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12154 KiB  
Article
Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Alteration Associated with Cenozoic Intrusion-Hosted Cu-Pb-Zn Mineralization at Tavşanlı Area, Kütahya, NW Turkey
by Mustafa Kumral, Amr Abdelnasser and Murat Budakoglu
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010013 - 17 Feb 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 10734
Abstract
The Miocene magmatic intrusion in the Tavşanlı zone of the Kütahya-Bolkardağ Belt (KBB) in the northwestern region of Turkey is represented by the Eğrigöz granitoids. This paper studies the petrology and geochemistry of hydrothermal alterations associated with the vein-type Cu-Pb-Zn mineralization hosted by [...] Read more.
The Miocene magmatic intrusion in the Tavşanlı zone of the Kütahya-Bolkardağ Belt (KBB) in the northwestern region of Turkey is represented by the Eğrigöz granitoids. This paper studies the petrology and geochemistry of hydrothermal alterations associated with the vein-type Cu-Pb-Zn mineralization hosted by this pluton, focusing on the determination of the mass gains and losses of chemical components, which reflect the chemical exchanges between the host rocks and hydrothermal fluids. Vein-type Cu-Pb-Zn mineralization is closely associated with intense hydrothermal alterations within the brecciation, quartz stockwork veining, and brittle fracture zones that are controlled by NW-SE trending faults cutting through the Eğrigöz granitoids. Paragenetic relationships reveal three stages of mineralization: pre-ore, ore, and supergene. The ore mineralogy typically includes hypogene chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, and pyrite, with locally supergene covellite, malachite, and azurite. Wall-rock hypogene hydrothermal alterations include pervasive silicification, sulfidation, sericitization, and selective carbonatization and albitization. These are distributed in three main alteration zones (zone 1: silicified/iron carbonatized alterations ± albite, zone 2: argillic-silicic alterations, and zone 3: phyllic alterations). Based on the gains and losses of mass and volume (calculated by the GEOISO-Windows™ program), zone 1 has a higher mass and volume gain than zones 2 and 3. Non-systematic zonal distributions of alterations are observed in which the silicic-carbonate alterations +/− albitization appeared in zone 1 in the center and the phyllic-argillic alterations appeared in zones 2 and 3, with an increase in base metals (Cu-Pb-Zn) in the zone from Cu, Cu-Pb, to Cu-Pb-Zn moving outwards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Deposit Genesis and Exploration)
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1817 KiB  
Article
A New Heterotrophic Strain for Bioleaching of Low Grade Complex Copper Ore
by Kaijian Hu, Aixiang Wu, Hongjiang Wang and Shaoyong Wang
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010012 - 06 Feb 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5553
Abstract
A new heterotrophic strain, named Providencia sp. JAT-1, was isolated and used in bioleaching of low-grade complex copper ore. The strain uses sodium citrate as a carbon source and urea as a nitrogen source to produce ammonia. The optimal growth condition of the [...] Read more.
A new heterotrophic strain, named Providencia sp. JAT-1, was isolated and used in bioleaching of low-grade complex copper ore. The strain uses sodium citrate as a carbon source and urea as a nitrogen source to produce ammonia. The optimal growth condition of the strain is 30 °C, initial pH 8, sodium citrate 10 g/L and urea 20 g/L, under which the cell density and ammonia concentration in the medium reached a maximum of 4.83 × 108 cells/mL and 14 g/L, respectively. Ammonia produced by the strain is used as the main lixiviant in bioleaching. Bioleaching results revealed that higher strain growth led to a higher copper recovery, while higher pulp density will cause a greater inhibitory effect on strain growth and ammonia production. The copper extraction reached the highest value of 54.5% at the pulp density of 1%. Malachite, chrysocolla and chalcocite are easy to leach out in this bioleaching system while chalcopyrite is difficult. Results of comparative leaching experiments show that bioleaching using JAT-1 is superior to ammonia leaching at the same condition. The metabolites produced by the strain other than ammonia are also involved in bioleaching. Full article
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8782 KiB  
Article
Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Stable Isotope Studies of the Dopolan Bauxite Deposit, Zagros Mountain, Iran
by Somayeh Salamab Ellahi, Batoul Taghipour, Alireza Zarasvandi, Michael I. Bird and Alireza K. Somarin
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010011 - 06 Feb 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 10982
Abstract
A new heterotrophic strain, named Providencia sp. JAT-1, was isolated and used in bioleaching of low-grade complex copper ore. The strain uses sodium citrate as a carbon source and urea as a nitrogen source to produce ammonia. The optimal growth condition of the [...] Read more.
A new heterotrophic strain, named Providencia sp. JAT-1, was isolated and used in bioleaching of low-grade complex copper ore. The strain uses sodium citrate as a carbon source and urea as a nitrogen source to produce ammonia. The optimal growth condition of the strain is 30 C, initial pH 8, sodium citrate 10 g/L and urea 20 g/L, under which the cell density and ammonia concentration in the medium reached a maximum of 4.83 × 108 cells/mL and 14 g/L, respectively. Ammonia produced by the strain is used as the main lixiviant in bioleaching. Bioleaching results revealed that higher strain growth led to a higher copper recovery, while higher pulp density will cause a greater inhibitory effect on strain growth and ammonia production. The copper extraction reached the highest value of 54.5% at the pulp density of 1%. Malachite, chrysocolla and chalcocite are easy to leach out in this bioleaching system while chalcopyrite is difficult. Results of comparative leaching experiments show that bioleaching using JAT-1 is superior to ammonia leaching at the same condition. The metabolites produced by the strain other than ammonia are also involved in bioleaching. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Deposit Genesis and Exploration)
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13668 KiB  
Article
Biomineralization Patterns of Intracellular Carbonatogenesis in Cyanobacteria: Molecular Hypotheses
by Jinhua Li, Isabel Margaret Oliver, Nithavong Cam, Thomas Boudier, Marine Blondeau, Eric Leroy, Julie Cosmidis, Feriel Skouri-Panet, Jean-Michel Guigner, Céline Férard, Melanie Poinsot, David Moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia, Corinne Cassier-Chauvat, Franck Chauvat and Karim Benzerara
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010010 - 03 Feb 2016
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 10203
Abstract
The recent discovery of intracellular carbonatogenesis in several cyanobacteria species has challenged the traditional view that this process was extracellular and not controlled. However, a detailed analysis of the size distribution, chemical composition and 3-D-arrangement of carbonates in these cyanobacteria is lacking. Here, [...] Read more.
The recent discovery of intracellular carbonatogenesis in several cyanobacteria species has challenged the traditional view that this process was extracellular and not controlled. However, a detailed analysis of the size distribution, chemical composition and 3-D-arrangement of carbonates in these cyanobacteria is lacking. Here, we characterized these features in Candidatus Gloeomargarita lithophora C7 and Candidatus Synechococcus calcipolaris G9 by conventional transmission electron microscopy, tomography, ultramicrotomy, and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM). Both Ca. G. lithophora C7 and Ca. S. calcipolaris G9 formed numerous polyphosphate granules adjacent or engulfing Ca-carbonate inclusions when grown in phosphate-rich solutions. Ca-carbonates were scattered within Ca. G. lithophora C7 cells under these conditions, but sometimes arranged in one or several chains. In contrast, Ca-carbonates formed at cell septa in Ca. S. calcipolaris G9 and were segregated equally between daughter cells after cell division, arranging as distorted disks at cell poles. The size distribution of carbonates evolved from a positively to a negatively skewed distribution as particles grew. Conventional ultramicrotomy did not preserve Ca-carbonates explaining partly why intracellular calcification has been overlooked in the past. All these new observations allow discussing with unprecedented insight some nucleation and growth processes occurring in intracellularly calcifying cyanobacteria with a particular emphasis on the possible involvement of intracellular compartments and cytoskeleton. Full article
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8067 KiB  
Article
Removal of Uranium and Associated Contaminants from Aqueous Solutions Using Functional Carbon Nanotubes-Sodium Alginate Conjugates
by Hussein Allaboun, Mohammad M. Fares and Fahmi A. Abu Al-Rub
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010009 - 02 Feb 2016
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6151
Abstract
Synthesis of hydrophilic/hydrophobic beads from functional carbon nanotubes (CNTs) conjugated with sodium alginate was investigated. Glutaraldehyde was used as a coupling agent and Ca2+ as a crosslinking agent. The formed conjugate comprises two-dimensional sheets of sodium alginate bounded to long tufts of [...] Read more.
Synthesis of hydrophilic/hydrophobic beads from functional carbon nanotubes (CNTs) conjugated with sodium alginate was investigated. Glutaraldehyde was used as a coupling agent and Ca2+ as a crosslinking agent. The formed conjugate comprises two-dimensional sheets of sodium alginate bounded to long tufts of functional CNT tails of micro-size geometry. Detailed characterization of the conjugates was performed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and its first derivative (DTG), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques. Different ratios of the conjugate were successfully prepared and used as biodegradable environmentally friendly sorbents. Removal of U6+, V3+, Cr3+, Mo3+, Pb2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Ti4+ and Ni2+ from aqueous solutions using the synthesized biosorbent was experimentally demonstrated. Maximum metal uptake of 53 mg/g was achieved using the % Functional CNTs = 33 sample. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Uranium Minerals: From Resources to Environmental Impact)
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2252 KiB  
Article
Ciriottiite, Cu(Cu,Ag)3Pb19(Sb,As)22(As2)S56, the Cu-Analogue of Sterryite from the Tavagnasco Mining District, Piedmont, Italy
by Luca Bindi, Cristian Biagioni, Bruno Martini and Adrio Salvetti
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010008 - 01 Feb 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5206
Abstract
The new mineral species ciriottiite, ideally Cu(Cu,Ag)3Pb19(Sb,As)22(As2)S56 has been discovered in the Tavagnasco mining district, Piedmont, Italy, as very rare black metallic tubular crystals, up to 150 μm in length, associated with Bi sulfosalts [...] Read more.
The new mineral species ciriottiite, ideally Cu(Cu,Ag)3Pb19(Sb,As)22(As2)S56 has been discovered in the Tavagnasco mining district, Piedmont, Italy, as very rare black metallic tubular crystals, up to 150 μm in length, associated with Bi sulfosalts and arsenopyrite. Its Vickers hardness (VHN10) is 203 kg/mm2 (range 190–219). In reflected light, ciriottiite is light grey in color, distinctly anisotropic with brownish to greenish rotation tints. Internal reflections are absent. Reflectance values for the four COM wavelengths (Rmin, Rmax (%) (λ in nm)) are: 33.2, 37.8 (471.1); 31.8, 35.3 (548.3), 31.0, 34.7 (586.6); and 27.9, 32.5 (652.3). Electron microprobe analysis gave (in wt %, average of 5 spot analyses): Cu 2.33 (8), Ag 0.53 (5), Hg 0.98 (6), Tl 0.78 (3), Pb 44.06 (14), As 4.66 (7), Sb 23.90 (10), Bi 1.75 (7), total 99.38 (26). On the basis of 56 S atoms per formula unit, the chemical formula of ciriottiite is Cu3.23(11)Ag0.43(4)Hg0.43(2)Pb18.74(9)Tl0.34(1)Sb17.30(5)As5.48(10)Bi0.74(3)S56. The main diffraction lines, corresponding to multiple hkl indices, are (d in Å (relative visual intensity)): 4.09 (m), 3.91 (m), 3.63 (vs), 3.57 (m), 3.22 (m), 2.80 (mw), 2.07 (s). The crystal structure study revealed ciriottiite to be monoclinic, space group P21/n, with unit-cell parameters a = 8.178 (2), b = 28.223 (6), c = 42.452 (5) Å, β = 93.55 (2)°, V = 9779.5 (5) Å3, Z = 4. The crystal structure was refined to a final R1 = 0.118 for 21304 observed reflections. Ciriottiite is the Cu analogue of sterryite and can be described as an expanded derivative of owyheeite. The name ciriottiite honors Marco Ernesto Ciriotti (b. 1945) for his longstanding contribution to mineral systematics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Accessory Minerals)
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1276 KiB  
Review
Advances towards a Clean Hydrometallurgical Process for Chromite
by Bo Zhang, Peiyang Shi and Maofa Jiang
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010007 - 28 Jan 2016
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7946
Abstract
Because of the acute toxicity of Cr(VI)-bearing substances, the pollution problem caused by chromite process residue has become a worldwide concern. In the view of relevant studies, the technologies based on the alkali treatment cannot fundamentally resolve the pollution problem, because the oxidation [...] Read more.
Because of the acute toxicity of Cr(VI)-bearing substances, the pollution problem caused by chromite process residue has become a worldwide concern. In the view of relevant studies, the technologies based on the alkali treatment cannot fundamentally resolve the pollution problem, because the oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) is unavoidable during chromite decomposition. In contrast, the oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) can be controlled by the sulfuric acid treatment of chromite, and the Cr(VI) pollution can be eliminated from the original source of production. Many research studies focusing on the resolutions of the key obstacles hindering the development of the sulfuric acid treatment process have been carried out, and significant progress has been achieved. In this study, a clean hydrometallurgical process without the generation of hexavalent chromium is demonstrated. First, the chromite was decomposed and leached by sulfuric acid solution in the presence of an oxidant. Then, iron was hydrothermally removed from the acid solution as the precipitate of jarosite. Finally, chromium salts were obtained by adjusting the basicity of the solution, separation and drying. With the aim of realizing industrialization, future research emphasis on the development of the sulfuric acid treatment process is proposed in this study. Full article
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664 KiB  
Editorial
Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Minerals in 2015
by Minerals Editorial Office
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010006 - 21 Jan 2016
Viewed by 2860
Abstract
The editors of Minerals would like to express their sincere gratitude to the following reviewers for assessing manuscripts in 2015. [...] Full article
9253 KiB  
Article
Application of Full Factorial Experimental Design and Response Surface Methodology for Chromite Beneficiation by Knelson Concentrator
by Gul Akar Sen
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010005 - 19 Jan 2016
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7853
Abstract
The present work is undertaken to determine the effect of operational variables, namely: feed rate, centrifugal force and fluidization water flow rate on the efficiency of Knelson concentrator for chromite ore beneficiation. A full factorial design with three factors at three levels and [...] Read more.
The present work is undertaken to determine the effect of operational variables, namely: feed rate, centrifugal force and fluidization water flow rate on the efficiency of Knelson concentrator for chromite ore beneficiation. A full factorial design with three factors at three levels and response surface methodology (RSM) were applied for this purpose. The quadratic models were developed to predict the concentrate Cr2O3 grade and recovery as the process responses. The results suggest that all the variables affect the grade and recovery of the Cr2O3 concentrate to some degree. However, the fluidization water rate was found as the most effective parameter. Full article
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8007 KiB  
Article
Direct Adherence of Fe(III) Particles onto Sheaths of Leptothrix sp. Strain OUMS1 in Culture
by Tatsuki Kunoh, Hideki Hashimoto, Tomoko Suzuki, Naoyuki Hayashi, Katsunori Tamura, Mikio Takano, Hitoshi Kunoh and Jun Takada
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010004 - 18 Jan 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4701
Abstract
Leptothrix species, one of the Fe/Mn-oxidizing bacteria, oxidize Fe(II) and produce extracellular, microtubuar, Fe-encrusted sheaths. Since protein(s) involved in Fe(II) oxidation is excreted from Leptothrix cells, the oxidation from Fe(II) to Fe(III) and subsequent Fe(III) deposition to sheaths have been thought to occur [...] Read more.
Leptothrix species, one of the Fe/Mn-oxidizing bacteria, oxidize Fe(II) and produce extracellular, microtubuar, Fe-encrusted sheaths. Since protein(s) involved in Fe(II) oxidation is excreted from Leptothrix cells, the oxidation from Fe(II) to Fe(III) and subsequent Fe(III) deposition to sheaths have been thought to occur in the vicinity or within the sheaths. Previously, Fe(III) particles generated in MSVP medium amended with Fe(II) salts by abiotic oxidation were directly recruited onto cell-encasing and/or -free sheaths of L. cholodnii SP-6. In this study, whether this direct Fe(III) adherence to sheaths also occurs in silicon-glucose-peptone (SGP) medium amended with Fe(0) (SGP + Fe) was investigated using another strain of Leptothrix sp., OUMS1. Preparation of SGP + Fe with Fe powder caused turbidity within a few hours due to abiotic generation of Fe(III) particles via Fe(II), and the medium remained turbid until day 8. When OUMS1 was added to SGP + Fe, the turbidity of the medium cleared within 35 h as Fe(III) particles adhered to sheaths. When primitive sheaths, cell-killed, cell-free, or lysozyme/EDTA/SDS- and proteinase K-treated sheath remnants were mixed with Fe(III) particles, the particles immediately adhered to each. Thus, vital activity of cells was not required for the direct Fe(III) particle deposition onto sheaths regardless of Leptothrix strains. Full article
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1328 KiB  
Article
Uranium-Series Disequilibria in the Groundwater of the Shihongtan Sandstone-Hosted Uranium Deposit, NW China
by Xinjian Peng, Maozhong Min, Haiming Qiao, Jinping Wang and Mostafa Fayek
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010003 - 30 Dec 2015
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5007
Abstract
Uranium (U) concentration and the activities of 238U, 234U, and 230Th were determined for groundwaters, spring waters, and lake water collected from the Shihongtan sandstone-hosted U ore district and in the surrounding area, NW China. The results show that the [...] Read more.
Uranium (U) concentration and the activities of 238U, 234U, and 230Th were determined for groundwaters, spring waters, and lake water collected from the Shihongtan sandstone-hosted U ore district and in the surrounding area, NW China. The results show that the groundwaters from the oxidizing aquifer with high dissolved oxygen concentration (O2) and oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) are enriched in U. The high U concentration of groundwaters may be due to the interaction between these oxidizing groundwaters and U ore bodies, which would result in U that is not in secular equilibrium. Uranium is re-precipitated as uraninite on weathered surfaces and organic material, forming localized ore bodies in the sandstone-hosted aquifer. The 234U/238U, 230Th/234U, and 230Th/238U activity ratios (ARs) for most water samples show obvious deviations from secular equilibrium (0.27–2.86), indicating the presence of water-rock/ore interactions during the last 1.7 Ma and probably longer. The 234U/238U AR generally increases with decreasing U concentrations in the groundwaters, suggesting that mixing of two water sources may occur in the aquifer. This is consistent with the fact that most of the U ore bodies in the deposit have a tabular shape originati from mixing between a relatively saline fluid and a more rapidly flowing U-bearing meteoric water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Uranium Minerals: From Resources to Environmental Impact)
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2486 KiB  
Article
Scale Effect of Premixed Methane-Air Combustion in Confined Space Using LES Model
by Liang Wang, Sisi Que, Jerry C. Tien and Nassib S. Aouad
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010002 - 29 Dec 2015
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4563
Abstract
Gas explosion is the most hazardous incident occurring in underground airways. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques are sophisticated in simulating explosions in confined spaces; specifically, when testing large-scale gaseous explosions, such as methane explosions in underground mines. The dimensions of a confined space [...] Read more.
Gas explosion is the most hazardous incident occurring in underground airways. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques are sophisticated in simulating explosions in confined spaces; specifically, when testing large-scale gaseous explosions, such as methane explosions in underground mines. The dimensions of a confined space where explosions could occur vary significantly. Thus, the scale effect on explosion parameters is worth investigating. In this paper, the impact of scaling on explosion overpressures is investigated by employing two scaling factors: The Gas-fill Length Scaling Factor (FLSF) and the Hydraulic Diameter Scaling Factor (HDSF). The combinations of eight FLSFs and five HDSFs will cover a wide range of space dimensions where flammable gas could accumulate. Experiments were also conducted to evaluate the selected numerical models. The Large Eddy Simulation turbulence model was selected because it shows accuracy compared to the widely used Reynolds’ averaged models for the scenarios investigated in the experiments. Three major conclusions can be drawn: (1) The overpressure increases with both FLSF and HDSF within the deflagration regime; (2) In an explosion duct with a length to diameter ratio greater than 54, detonation is more likely to be triggered for a stoichiometric methane/air mixture; (3) Overpressure increases as an increment hydraulic diameter of a geometry within deflagration regime. A relative error of 7% is found when predicting blast peak overpressure for the base case compared to the experiment; a good agreement for the wave arrival time is also achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Underground Mine Ventilation and Monitoring Systems)
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6417 KiB  
Article
New Insights in the Ontogeny and Taphonomy of the Devonian Acanthodian Triazeugacanthus affinis From the Miguasha Fossil-Lagerstätte, Eastern Canada
by Marion Chevrinais, Etienne Balan and Richard Cloutier
Minerals 2016, 6(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/min6010001 - 23 Dec 2015
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6343
Abstract
Progressive biomineralization of a skeleton occurs during ontogeny in most animals. In fishes, larvae are poorly mineralized, whereas juveniles and adults display a progressively more biomineralized skeleton. Fossil remains primarily consist of adult specimens because the fossilization of poorly-mineralized larvae and juveniles necessitates [...] Read more.
Progressive biomineralization of a skeleton occurs during ontogeny in most animals. In fishes, larvae are poorly mineralized, whereas juveniles and adults display a progressively more biomineralized skeleton. Fossil remains primarily consist of adult specimens because the fossilization of poorly-mineralized larvae and juveniles necessitates exceptional conditions. The Miguasha Fossil-Lagerstätte is renowned for its Late Devonian vertebrate fauna, revealing the exceptional preservation of fossilized ontogenies for 14 of the 20 fish species from this locality. The mineralization of anatomical structures of the acanthodian Triazeugacanthus affinis from Miguasha are compared among larval, juvenile and adult specimens using Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry. Chemical composition of anatomical structures of Triazeugacanthus reveals differences between cartilage and bone. Although the histology and anatomy is well-preserved, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry shows that the original chemical composition of bone is altered by diagenesis; the mineral phase of the bone (i.e., hydroxyapatite) is modified chemically to form more stable carbonate-fluorapatite. Fluorination occurring in mineralized skeletal structures of adult Triazeugacanthus is indicative of exchanges between groundwater and skeleton at burial, whereas the preservation of larval soft tissues is likely owing to a rapid burial under anoxic conditions. The exceptional state of preservation of a fossilized ontogeny allowed us to characterize chemically the progressive mineralization of the skeleton in a Devonian early vertebrate. Full article
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