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Article

Two Periods of Porphyry Cu Mineralization and Metallogenic Implications in the Tuwu–Yandong Belt (NW China), Based on Re–Os Systematics of Molybdenite

1
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
2
Key Laboratory of Deep-Earth Dynamics of Ministry of Natural Resources, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
3
State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
4
National Research Center for Geoanalysis, Beijing 100037, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2022, 12(9), 1127; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091127
Submission received: 27 July 2022 / Revised: 31 August 2022 / Accepted: 2 September 2022 / Published: 5 September 2022

Abstract

:
The Tuwu–Yandong belt contains five porphyry Cu deposits (Fuxing, Yandong, Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu), constituting the largest Cu metallogenic belt in Northwest China. However, the metallogenic framework for porphyry Cu deposits in the belt remains controversial. Rhenium-osmium dating of molybdenite from the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu deposits and comparisons with previous geochronological data of five deposits suggest that two episodes (335–330 Ma and 323–315 Ma) of porphyry Cu–Mo mineralization occurred in the Tuwu–Yandong belt, and the metals were mainly sourced from the mantle. Moreover, combined with the geodynamic framework of this belt, the compressional environment may be more favorable for porphyry Cu mineralization, and further exploration into the Early Carboniferous porphyry Cu deposits in this belt is expected.

1. Introduction

Porphyry deposits are the world’s most important sources of Cu and Mo and account for 50–60% of global Cu and  >95% of global Mo production [1,2,3]. Porphyry Cu metallogenic belts have been proven to experience multiple episodes of mineralization worldwide (e.g., the Yulong porphyry Cu belt in eastern Tibet, 40–32 Ma [4]; the Xiongcun district of the Gangdese belt, 172–161 Ma [5]; the Eastern Pontides Metallogenic Belt, ca. 131 Ma, 76 Ma, and 50 Ma [6]; the eastern Sunda arc, 13.2–2.5 Ma [7]). A series of giant porphyry Cu–(Mo)–(Au) deposits that were formed from the Ordovician to the Jurassic, such as Kounrad, Aktogai, Kal’makyr, Oyu Tolgoi, and Chalukou, are in the Phanerozoic Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB; Figure 1a) [8,9,10]. The Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt, located in the southern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, is the largest Cu metallogenic belt in Northwest China, and contains five Cu deposits (Figure 1b; Fuxing, Yandong, Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu), with a proven Cu reserve of ca. 3 Mt [11,12].
Since the discovery of the Tuwu–Yandong Cu belt in the late 1990s, several studies on the Fuxing, Yandong, Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu porphyry Cu deposits and their geology, petrology, geochemistry, and geochronology have been completed [11,12,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22]. However, the reported metallogenic age of the Tuwu and Yandong deposits has a large span (343–323 Ma; [19,23,24,25,26]). Some researchers believe that copper mineralization occurred in the Early Carboniferous [11,19], and others propose that the porphyry was overprinted by Cu–Mo mineralization events in the Tuwu and Yandong deposits [18,24]. In addition, no metallogenic ages for the Linglong and Chihu deposits have been reported, and their correlation with the Tuwu and Yandong deposits has not yet been revealed. Therefore, the metallogenic framework for porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt remains debated.
Recent advances in radiometric dating have allowed for the documentation of small age differences among hydrothermal minerals in magmatic–hydrothermal systems [27]. Among the radiometric dating methods, Re–Os isotope geochronology is a versatile tool that may directly date ore formation since it can be applied to both sulfide and oxide ore minerals [27,28]. In addition, the Re–Os isotope system may also be applied to trace metal sources [29,30]. This paper reports molybdenite Re–Os dating for the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu Cu deposits, and combines the data with previously published age data to restrict the age of metallogenesis in the belt. The age of porphyry Cu mineralization is linked to the geodynamic framework, and the implications for future exploration are discussed.

2. Geological Setting

2.1. Tectonic Background of the Eastern Tianshan

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt, sandwiched between the European Craton to the west, the Tarim–North China Craton to the south, and the Siberian Craton to the north (Figure 1a) [31,32,33,34], is the largest Phanerozoic accretionary orogen and was formed by multiple accretion and collision processes as a result of the successive closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean [35]. The Eastern Tianshan orogenic belt, located at the southern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Figure 1b), is a complex collage of island arc assemblages, remnants of oceanic crust, accretionary wedges, and continental fragments [34,36] and is one of the most important Cu–Ni–Au metallogenic provinces in China [12,37]. The Eastern Tianshan orogenic belt may be divided from north to south into the Haerlike belt, Jueluotage belt, and Central Tianshan block, separated by the regional-scale Qincheng and Aqikekuduke faults, respectively (Figure 1b) [11,13,38]. The Haerlike belt contains Ordovician–Carboniferous volcanic rocks, granites, and some Late Paleozoic mafic-ultramafic complexes but only hosts a few porphyry Cu and Au prospects [11]. The Jueluotage belt comprises Paleozoic marine sedimentary rocks and felsic to mafic volcanic rocks, and late Paleozoic felsic and mafic-ultramafic intrusions [18], and is the most important Cu, Fe, and Au metallogenetic unit in Eastern Tianshan [39]. The Central Tianshan block is composed mainly of Precambrian crystalline basement and hosts several volcanic Fe deposits (e.g., Tianhu and Weiya) and the giant Caixiashan Pb–Zn deposit [11,40].
The Jueluotage belt may be further divided into three subtectonic domains by the Kanggur and Yamansu faults, namely the Dananhu island arc, the Kanggur shear zone, and the Yamansu arc (Figure 1b) [39]. The Dananhu island arc, situated in the northern part of the Jueluotage belt, is characterized by Ordovician to Permian volcanic and clastic rocks and ultramafic to granitic intrusive rocks, as well as minor Jurassic coal-bearing clastic rocks [39], and hosts porphyry Cu (e.g., Tuwu, Yandong), magmatic Cu–Ni sulfide (e.g., Baixintan), and volcanogenic massive sulfide Cu–Zn deposits (e.g., Honghai–Huangtupo) [11]. The Kanggur shear zone mainly comprises dynamometamorphic Carboniferous–Permian marine volcanic–sedimentary rocks. The magmatism in this area is characterized by post-collisional high-K calc-alkaline to alkali granitoids and mafic–ultramafic intrusive complexes, with some rocks genetically related to ductile shear Au (e.g., Kanggur), porphyry Mo (e.g., Donggebi), and magmatic Cu–Ni sulfide mineralizations (e.g., Huangshan) [39]. The southern Yamansu arc consists of Carboniferous volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, with minor intercalated sedimentary rocks and many Carboniferous to Permian intrusive rocks, and hosts many Fe (e.g., Hongyuntan, Tieling, and Chilongfeng) and Fe–Cu (e.g., Bailingshan, Duotoushan, Heijianshan, and Shuanglong) deposits (Figure 1b) [41].

2.2. Geology of the Tuwu–Yandong Porphyry Cu Belt

The Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt is located in the southern margin of the Dananhu island arc. The characteristics of the Fuxing, Yandong, Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu deposits are summarized in Table 1. All the deposits in this belt are distributed in the north of the Kanggur Fault and the south of the Dacaotan Fault, clustering in a ~10 km wide belt (Figure 2a). Near-EW-trending, NW-trending, and NE-trending faults and fracture zones are widely developed in this area (Figure 2a).
The Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt is mainly covered by the Carboniferous Qi’eshan Group, Jurassic Xishanyao Formation, and Quaternary sediments (Figure 2b). In addition, the Devonian Dananhu Formation is exposed to the north of the belt, and the Carboniferous Gandun Formation is exposed to the south of the belt (Figure 2a). The Qi’eshan Group is east-striking and dips to the south at 43° to 63°, generally with well-developed schistosity [16]. It is typically 600–2000 m thick and composed of lower andesite and basalt lavas intercalated with tuff (Unit 1), middle andesite, and brecciated andesite lavas (Unit 2), and upper pebbly lithic sandstone and minor tuffaceous siltstone intercalated with basalt, andesite, and dacite lavas (Unit 3) (Figure 2b) [11]. The Jurassic Xishanyao Formation, unconformably overlying the Qi’eshan Group, is mainly composed of sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, and conglomerate [11].
The intrusive rocks may be divided into three major episodes [14]: (1) the earliest intermediate intrusions (e.g., diorite or diorite porphyry) emplaced at ca. 348–338 Ma [12,16,17]; (2) the felsic tonalite porphyry occurred during 335–332 Ma [16,17,19,21,44,45]; and (3) the latest felsic granitoids intrusions (e.g., quartz albite porphyry and Chihu granodiorite), formed at ca. 323–315 Ma [12,14]. Among them, some Early Carboniferous felsic intrusives (e.g., plagiogranite porphyry or tonalite porphyry) are closely related to Fuxing, Yandong, and Tuwu Cu mineralization (Figure 2b) [14,17,19,21,44,45]. In addition, the emplacement of some Late Carboniferous felsic intrusions (e.g., quartz albite porphyry) is also thought to have caused the later superimposed mineralization of the Yandong (and Tuwu) deposit [18,24] and the formation of the Linglong (or Chihu) deposit (Figure 2b) [14,22].

3. Deposit Geology

3.1. Tuwu Deposit Geology

The Tuwu porphyry Cu deposit was discovered in 1997, with proven reserves of Cu estimated to be [email protected]% [11]. It is located about 4 km north of the Kanggur fault (Figure 2a) [17]. The outcropping strata mainly consist of Units 1 and 2 of the Qi’eshan Group and Jurassic Xishanyao Formation, with the orebody being mainly located in Unit 1 of the Qi’eshan Group and tonalitic porphyry (Figure 3a–c) [11,18]. The tonalitic porphyry yields zircon U–Pb ages of 332.8 ± 2.5 Ma (SIMS; [17]), 334.7 ± 3 Ma (SIMS; [46]), and 332.3 ± 5.9 Ma (SHRIMP; [44]).
Three mineralized zones, from east to west, have been recognized as I, II, and III ore zones (Figure 3a) [11,47,48]. Ore zone I is an approximate length of 1300 m and an average width of 39 m, with relatively low average grades (0.35 wt%) and the highest grade in the thickest, easternmost orebody [47]. Ore zone II is between 130 and 1400 m long and 4 and 125 m thick. It has grades of 0.2 to 2.8% Cu, is the most economically important orebody, and accounts for 96% of the total metal reserves of the deposit [47]. Ore zone III is 230–400 m long, 1–53 m thick, and dips 60° to 75° to the south [11]. This is an oxidized ore body, with Cu grades of 0.17–0.53 wt% [48]. The Tuwu porphyry Cu deposit includes veins, veinlets, and disseminated mineralization [44]. The ore minerals are dominated by chalcopyrite and pyrite, with minor bornite, magnetite, molybdenite, sphalerite, and galena [48]. The gangue minerals are composed of quartz, sericite, muscovite, chlorite, epidote, biotite, calcite, plagioclase, and albite [48].
The Tuwu deposit has experienced early potassic alteration, overprinted by phyllic and pervasive propylitic alteration (Figure 3c) [47]. The ore-forming processes may be divided into four paragenetic stages [48]. Stage I is composed of quartz–magnetite–pyrite ± biotite ± K-feldspar ± albite veins and quartz–magnetite veins, associated with weak and local potassic alteration (K-feldspar, quartz, and biotite). Stage II includes assemblages of quartz–chalcopyrite ± pyrite and quartz–chalcopyrite–bornite ± pyrite ± epidote, associated with phyllic alteration (sericite, quartz, muscovite, pyrite, chlorite, epidote, or rutile), and is considered the main mineralization stage. Stage III is characterized by Mo-bearing quartz veins, including quartz–molybdenite–chalcopyrite veins and quartz–calcite–molybdenite veins, associated with pervasive intense propylitic alteration (chlorite, epidote, and calcite). Stage IV is composed of pyrite–quartz–calcite and chlorite–epidote–anhydrite, associated with weak chlorite–epidote alteration.

3.2. Linglong Deposit Geology

The Linglong porphyry Cu deposit was discovered in 1999 and is located about 14 km east of Tuwu and about 3.5 km north of the Kanggur fault (Figure 2a) [14]. The outcropping strata mainly consist of Units 2 and 3 of the Qi’eshan Group and Jurassic Xishanyao Formation, with the orebody mainly occurring near the contact zone between quartz albite porphyry and Unit 2 of the Carboniferous Qi’eshan group (Figure 4a).
The orebodies are elongated in the E-W direction and characterized by banding on the surface, and tabular, vein, and bedded textures in sections (Figure 4b) [14,49]. The main orebodies are between 300 and 1000 m long and 47 and 132 m thick and dip to the south at 40° to 65°. The ore styles in the Linglong porphyry Cu deposit mainly include disseminations, veins, or stockworks [14]. The ore minerals are dominated by chalcopyrite, pyrite with minor molybdenite, magnetite, and limonite, and the gangue minerals are composed of quartz, plagioclase, sericite, chlorite, and epidote, with minor biotite and calcite [14,49].
The Linglong deposit shows zones of alteration, including silicification, sericitization, chloritization, epidotization, and carbonatation [49]. Based on the mineral assemblages and micro-textures, three paragenetic stages have been recognized. Stage I is characterized by mineral assemblages of quartz + magnetite ± hematite associated with potassic alteration. Stage II is defined by significant Cu mineralization (e.g., chalcopyrite, pyrite, and molybdenite) and pervasive phyllic alteration. Stage III mainly consists of carbonates (e.g., calcite), quartz, chlorite, epidote, and minor sulfides [50].

3.3. Chihu Deposit Geology

The Chihu porphyry Cu deposit has proven reserves of Cu (9129.6t) and Mo (7998.5t) and is located about 35 km northeast of the Tuwu and about 7 km north of the Kanggur fault (Figure 2a). The Chihu granodiorite and porphyritic granodiorite intrude the intermediate to mafic volcanic rocks of the Qi’eshan Group (Figure 5a).
The Chihu molybdenum–copper orebodies have gradual relationships with the surrounding rocks. The orebody has a tabular surface morphology and is elongated in the E-W direction. The main orebodies are about 400–700 m long and 7–15 m thick (Figure 5b), and dip to the south at 30° to 60°, with relatively low average grades (0.22%–0.36%). The ore styles in the Chihu porphyry Cu deposit mainly include disseminations and veinlets. The ore minerals are dominated by chalcopyrite and pyrite, with minor molybdenite, bornite, and chalcocite. The gangue minerals are quartz, sericite, plagioclase, chlorite, and epidote [43]. The Chihu deposit shows a zonation of alteration, as is the case for the majority of porphyry deposits. From the center outward, quartz–sericitization, discontinuous argillization, and propylitic alteration zones are recognized.

4. Sampling and Analytical Methods

Eighteen molybdenite samples were collected from drill holes of the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu porphyry Cu deposits for Re–Os isotope analyses. Among them, five molybdenite samples came from drill holes ZK2401 and ZK2403 in the Tuwu deposit. Four molybdenite samples came from drill hole ZK801 in the Linglong deposit. Nine molybdenite samples came from drill hole ZK001 in the Chihu deposit. The sample (or sampling drill holes) positions are shown in Figure 3a, Figure 4a and Figure 5b, respectively. The photographs and photomicrographs of the representative samples are shown in Figure 6. Molybdenite occurs as disseminations in granite or quartz veinlets and is cogenetic with chalcopyrite (Figure 6a,c,f,i).
The molybdenite was magnetically separated and then handpicked under a binocular microscope. Fresh, nonoxidized molybdenite powders (<0.1 mm in size and purity >99%) were used for Re–Os isotope analyses. 187Re and 187Os concentrations of molybdenite were measured using a TJA PQ ExCell ICP–MS at the Re–Os Laboratory of National Research Center of Geoanalysis, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing. The chemical separation of the Re and Os and the analytical procedure were in accordance with [51,52,53]. The chemical separation procedure is described here briefly [54,55,56,57]:
The weighed molybdenite samples were loaded in a Carius tube through a thin-neck long funnel. The mixed 190Os and 185Re spike solutions and 2 mL HCl and 4 mL HNO4 were loaded, while the bottom part of the tube was frozen at −50 °C to −80 °C in an ethanol–liquid nitrogen slush and the top was sealed using an oxygen–propane torch. The tube was then placed in a stainless-steel jacket and heated for 24 h at 230 °C. Upon cooling, and keeping the bottom part of the tube frozen, the neck of the tube was broken, and the Os was separated using the method of direct distillation from the Carius tube for 50 min and trapped in 3 mL of water that was used for the ICP–MS (X-Series) determination of the Os isotope ratio. The residual Re-bearing solution was saved in a 150 mL Teflon beaker for Re separation.
The residual Re-bearing solution was heated to near-dryness. Then, 5 mL of 30% NaOH was added to the residue, followed by Re extraction with 5 mL of acetone in a 50 mL centrifuge tube. The acetone phase was transferred to a 150 mL Teflon beaker that contained 1 mL of water. It was evaporated to dryness, and picked up in 2% HNO3, which was used for the ICP–MS(X-Series) determination of the Re isotope ratio.
The average blanks for the method were ca. 3 pg Re and ca. 0.5 pg Os. The working conditions of the instrument were controlled by the reference material JDC, which produced a measured value of 139.8 ± 2.0 Ma, which is comparable to the recommended value of 139.6 ± 3.8 Ma [53]. Uncertainty in the Re–Os model ages includes 1.02% uncertainty (at 95% confidence level) for the 187Re decay constant. The Re–Os model ages were calculated following the equation: t = [ln(1 + 187Os/187Re)]/λ, where λ is the decay constant of 187Re (λ 187Re = 1.666 × 10−11 year−1; [58]) and denotes the age. The Re–Os isochron ages were calculated using the least-squares method [59], employing the program ISOPLOT 3.0 [60].

5. Results

The rhenium–osmium abundances and the isotopic data for eighteen molybdenite samples are given in Table 2. The rhenium, common Os, and 187Re and 187Os concentrations of the five molybdenite samples from the Tuwu deposit vary from 267.0 to 1656.1 ppm, 1.003 to 61.32 ppb, 167.8 to 1040.9 ppm, and 940 to 17,022 ppb, respectively (Table 2). The calculated model ages are all within error of each other, ranging from 333.0 ± 4.8 to 335.6 ± 5.5 Ma (2σ). These results yield a well-constrained 187Re-187Os isochron age of 334.1 ± 3.3 Ma (2σ, MSWD = 0.56, n = 5; Figure 7a) and a weighted average age of 334.5 ± 2.2 Ma (95% confidence level with MSWD = 0.24, n = 5; Figure 7b). These two ages are consistent within the error limits and indicate that the Tuwu porphyry Cu deposit was mineralized in the Early Carboniferous.
The rhenium, common Os, 187Re, and 187Os concentrations of the four molybdenite samples from the Linglong deposit vary from 2225.0 to 9018.2 ppm, 1.845 to 9.761 ppb, 1398.4 to 6009.5 ppm, and 7364 to 31,862 ppb, respectively (Table 2). The calculated model ages are all within error of each other, ranging from 314.6 ± 5.3 Ma to 317.4 ± 4.9 Ma (2σ). These results yield a well-constrained 187Re–187Os isochron age of 316.8 ± 3.7 Ma (2σ, MSWD = 0.36, n = 4; Figure 7c) and a weighted average age of 315.7 ± 2.4 Ma (95% confidence level with MSWD = 0.23, n = 4; Figure 7d). These two ages are consistent within the error limits and indicate that the Linglong porphyry Cu deposit was formed in the Late Carboniferous.
The rhenium, common Os, 187Re, and 187Os concentrations of the nine molybdenite samples from the Chihu deposit vary from 4370.9 to 18,040.0 ppm, 3.257 to 19.54 ppb, 2747.2 to 11,338.5 ppm, and 14,493 to 60,129 ppb, respectively (Table 2). The calculated model ages are all within error of each other, ranging from 315.3 ± 4.9 Ma to 317.5 ± 5.3 Ma (2σ). These results yield a well-constrained 187Re–187Os isochron age of 317.0 ± 3.6 Ma (2σ, MSWD = 0.20, n = 9; Figure 7e) and a weighted average age of 316.5 ± 1.6 Ma (95% confidence level with MSWD = 0.113, n = 9; Figure 7f). These two ages are consistent within the error limits and indicate that the Chihu porphyry Cu deposit was mineralized in the Late Carboniferous.

6. Discussion

6.1. Mineralization Ages of the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu Porphyry Cu Deposits

The five molybdenite samples from ore-bearing quartz veins and Mo-mineralized tonalite at ore zone I of Tuwu yielded Re–Os model ages of 333.0 ± 4.8 Ma to 335.6 ± 5.5 Ma (Table 2), with an isochron age of 334.1 ± 3.3 Ma (Figure 7a) and a weighted average age of 334.5 ± 2.2 Ma (Figure 7b). This Re–Os age for molybdenite (334 Ma) is older than the 40Ar/39Ar age (328.1 ± 1.4 Ma) of sericite, although molybdenite is intimately associated with sericite alteration. A possible explanation is that the sericite age was disturbed due to Ar loss from grain margins [61]. Our Re–Os age also overlaps with published molybdenite Re–Os ages (335.6 ± 4.1 Ma; ore zone II of Tuwu; [11]), both of which fall within the zircon U–Pb ages for the Tuwu tonalite porphyry (335–332 Ma; Table 3). It is reasonable to speculate that porphyry Cu–Mo mineralization at Tuwu (ore zones I and II) is genetically related to the Early Carboniferous tonalite porphyry. However, Rui et al. (2002) reported a molybdenite Re–Os age of 322.7 ± 2.3 Ma for Tuwu and Yandong [26], but the sampling location and mineral paragenesis were absent. The younger molybdenite Re–Os age was attributed to the late superimposed mineralization event at Yandong or Tuwu [12].
The four molybdenite samples from the Linglong deposit yielded Re–Os model ages of 314.6 ± 5.3 Ma to 317.4 ± 4.9 Ma (Table 2) and an isochron age of 316.8 ± 3.7 Ma (Figure 7c), which overlaps within the error of the SIMS zircon U–Pb age of the quartz albite porphyry (318.6 ± 3 Ma; [14]). The nine Re–Os molybdenite model ages range from 315.3 ± 4.9 Ma to 317.5 ± 5.3 Ma (Table 2) and yielded an isochron age of 317.0 ± 3.6 Ma for Chihu (Figure 7e), comparable with the SIMS zircon U–Pb ages of granodiorite (320.2 ± 2.4 Ma) and porphyritic granodiorite (314.5 ± 2.5 Ma) in the Chihu area [22,43]. Thus, the porphyry Cu mineralizations at Linglong and Chihu were contemporaneous, and both were related to the emplacement of Late Carboniferous granitoid intrusions (e.g., quartz albite porphyry, granodiorite, and porphyritic granodiorite).

6.2. Multiple Porphyry Cu Mineralization in the Tuwu–Yandong Belt

From west to east, the Fuxing, Yandong, Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu porphyry Cu deposits are linearly distributed in the Dananhu island arc belt, parallel to the Kanggur fault (Figure 2a). The five deposits show broad similarities in mineralization styles and alteration zones, whereas they vary significantly in ore reserves and copper grades (Table 2) [11,14,19,20,22,64,65].
Wang et al. (2016) reported zircon U–Pb ages of 332.1 ± 2.2 Ma and 328.4 ± 3.4 Ma for the Fuxing ore-related plagiogranite porphyry and monzogranite, respectively [21]. Previously reported zircon U–Pb ages for the Yandong plagiogranite porphyry (332–335 Ma; [16,19,45,63]) and quartz albite porphyry (323.6 ± 2.5 Ma; [12]) overlap with published molybdenite Re–Os ages (324.3 ± 2.7 Ma; [19,24]; 331.3 ± 2.1; [19,24]; 322.7 ± 2.3 Ma for the Tuwu–Yandong; [26]) and the 40Ar/39Ar age of sericite (332.8 ± 3.8; [24]), indicating that two periods of mineralization developed at Yandong. Based on the correlations among the mineralization, alteration, and porphyry [16,19], we propose that the emplacement of the Early Carboniferous plagiogranite porphyry may have contributed to most of the Cu–Mo mineralization [16,19,64].
This paper and previous studies suggest that these porphyry Cu deposits and ore-related magmatism formed during the Carboniferous (Table 3) [11,14,19,21,22]. Based on the geochronological data and the close temporal–spatial relationships between the porphyry Cu mineralization and magmatic activities in the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt (Table 3; Figure 8), two periods of porphyry Cu mineralization may be identified: (1) the early metallogenic events (e.g., Fuxing, Tuwu–Yandong) at ca. 335–330 Ma, genetically related to the emplacement of Early Carboniferous granitoid intrusions (e.g., plagiogranite porphyry); (2) the late metallogenic events (e.g., Tuwu–Yandong superimposed mineralization period, Linglong and Chihu) during 323–315 Ma, genetically related to the emplacement of Late Carboniferous granitoid intrusions (e.g., quartz albite porphyry, granodiorite) [11,12,14,18,21,22,24,66]. The interval between the two episodes of porphyry Cu–Mo mineralization in this belt is ca. 15 Ma. Moreover, the first episode of porphyry Cu–Mo mineralization contributed to the formation of large porphyry Cu deposits in this belt.

6.3. Molybdenite Re Contents and Origin of Ore Metals

Molybdenite Re–Os isotopic approaches can provide evidence of the timing of mineralization and may also be used to track the sources of rhenium [67]. The rhenium content of molybdenite decreases gradually from mantle sources to mixtures of mantle and crust, with the lowest values in crustal rocks because Re is moderately incompatible during mantle melting [68]. It has been widely suggested that the molybdenite Re contents progressively decrease from >100 ppm for a mantle source through tens of ppm for mixed mantle/crust sources to <10 ppm for crustal sources [69,70,71,72]. In this study, the Re contents of molybdenite from Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu were all higher than 100 ppm (Table 2), comparable with the previously published Re contents of molybdenite from Tuwu and Yandong (Table 4) [11,19]. Thus, we tentatively propose that the Re and, by inference, other metals (e.g., Cu and Mo) of these deposits originated from the mantle. This explanation is also supported by other evidence: sulfur compositions of sulfides (e.g., pyrite, chalcopyrite, and molybdenite) exhibit a near-zero δ34S range (−1.9 to +2.3‰ for Fuxing [20]; − 3.3 to +0.8‰ for Yandong [64]; −0.8 to +0.6‰ [18], −3.0 to +1.7‰ [44], and −3.9 to +4.4‰ [11] for Tuwu), which are consistent with the magmatic source (−3 to + 7‰ [73]); lead isotopic compositions of the Yandong deposit plot along the mantle growth curve [19]; fluid inclusions and C–H–O isotope data from Fuxing, Yandong and Tuwu indicate that the ore-forming fluids are dominated by a magmatic signature [18,20,47]; finally, the mineralization-related porphyries have positive εNd(t) and εHf(t) values [12,14,19,21,22], which indicates the partial melting of a subducted oceanic crust or subduction-modified mantle [12,19,21,22].
Rhenium in porphyry Cu deposits is concentrated primarily as ReS2 in solid solution in molybdenite at concentrations ranging from about 100 to 3000 ppm [75]. Molybdenite with >1 wt% (10000 ppm) Re is rarely observed in porphyry deposits [71,72,75], although Re concentrations in molybdenite from porphyry systems of up to 4.2% have been reported in the Kirki prospect and 4.7% in the Pagoni Rachi prospect in northern Greece [69,76]. Extremely Re-rich molybdenite from porphyry Cu–Mo–Au prospects and deposits may be affected by a complex interplay of several factors, such as the nature and source of the host rock and the physicochemical conditions of the ore formation (fO2, Cl activity, P, T) [71,72]. The molybdenite from Linglong and Chihu contains extremely high Re content (Table 2; 2225.0–9018.2 ppm and 4370.9–18,040.0 ppm), much higher than that from the Tuwu and Yandong (Table 4). Considering that these porphyry Cu deposits were generated in different geodynamic settings (flat subduction started ca. 340 Ma, and slab rollback at around 323 Ma) [12], the increased molybdenite Re contents from Tuwu–Yandong to Linglong–Chihu (Table 4) may have been controlled by the tectonic transition from the Early Carboniferous to the Late Carboniferous [77]. Moreover, considering the significant variation in the ore reserves and Cu–Mo grades between the deposits (Table 1), highly variable Re contents of molybdenite from these deposits may also be simply interpreted as a mass-balance mechanism that less abundant molybdenite in porphyry Cu deposits has higher Re concentrations and vice versa [78].

6.4. Exploration Implications

Porphyry Cu deposits provide a significant proportion of global copper production [1,2,3]. Most porphyry Cu deposits form in magmatic arcs at convergent plate margins [2,3]. The compressional regimes are ideal for the formation of porphyry Cu deposits [79,80,81], whereas the convergent plate margin settings, characterized by slab rollback and consequent crustal extension, are not conducive to its formation [82]. Compressional environments may effectively prevent magma from passing through the upper crust to form volcanic rocks, thereby forming a shallow magma chamber that is larger than the extensional environment. The shallow magma chamber in the compressional environment is difficult to erupt, which promotes crystallization–differentiation of the magma and may lead to the saturation of hydrothermal fluids. It is difficult to develop a steep extensional fault under the compressional environment, which effectively limits the number of conduits on top of the magma chamber and, therefore, is beneficial to the accumulation of metals [81,82,83,84].
To date, Tuwu contains proven ore reserves of 145 million tons (Mt) at a grade of 0.62% Cu, and Yandong contains 372 Mt at an average grade of 0.58% Cu, together with significant amounts of Mo and Au [11], of which the main mineralization period formed in the compressional environment in a flat subduction environment [12], whereas Linglong and Chihu are small porphyry Cu deposits (Table 1), which formed in the extensional environment of subduction slab rollback [12]. Obviously, the Early Carboniferous compressional regimes were favorable for porphyry Cu mineralization in the Tuwu–Yandong belt.
However, the coeval Fuxing porphyry Cu occurrence in the Tuwu–Yandong belt is sulfide barren (Figure 2a and Figure 8), suggesting that the compressional environment is not a unique factor responsible for the formation of large porphyry Cu–Mo deposits. The formation of the large porphyry Cu–Mo deposits may result from the favorable convergence of many factors, from the crust to the deposit scale (e.g., geodynamics, lithological, permeability architecture, and supergene enrichment blankets) [1,2,3].

7. Conclusions

(1)
Samples from the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu deposits yielded molybdenite Re–Os isochron ages of 334.1 ± 3.3 Ma, 316.8 ± 3.7 Ma, and 317.0 ± 3.6 Ma, respectively.
(2)
At least two periods of mineralization can be identified in the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt: (1) the Fuxing and Tuwu–Yandong main mineralization period, formed ca. 335–330 Ma; (2) the later Tuwu–Yandong superimposed mineralization period, and those of Linglong and Chihu, occurred during 323–315 Ma.
(3)
The high Re contents of molybdenite in the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt indicate a significant input of mantle materials.
(4)
The compressive environment is ideal for the formation of porphyry Cu deposits, and further exploration breakthrough for the Early Carboniferous porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt is expected.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.A. and C.X.; data curation, W.A. and C.L.; funding acquisition, C.X., Y.Z. and C.L.; investigation, W.A., C.X. and Y.Z.; methodology, W.A., C.X. and C.L.; supervision, C.X.; writing—original draft, W.A.; writing—review and editing, W.A., C.X. and Y.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was jointly funded by the National Key R&D Program of China (2017YFC0601202 and 2020YFA0714800), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41873065, 41803013, and 41473017), the Open Research Project from the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources (GPMR202107, GPMR202116), the Open Funds from the Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Dynamics of Ministry of Natural Resource (J1901-16), the State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research (2021-LAMD-K10), and Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (QZ05201905 and 2652019050).

Data Availability Statement

All the data are presented in the paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the managers and geological staff of the No. 1 Geological Team of Xinjiang, for their support in our fieldwork. We are also deeply grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their reviews and constructive suggestions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Schematic map showing distribution of major ore deposits in the CAOB (modified from [11]). (b) Tectonic framework and distribution of deposits in the Eastern Tianshan (modified from [13]).
Figure 1. (a) Schematic map showing distribution of major ore deposits in the CAOB (modified from [11]). (b) Tectonic framework and distribution of deposits in the Eastern Tianshan (modified from [13]).
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Figure 2. (a) Regional geology and distribution of porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt, Eastern Tianshan (modified after [14]). (b) Stratigraphic column of the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt (modified after [42]).
Figure 2. (a) Regional geology and distribution of porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt, Eastern Tianshan (modified after [14]). (b) Stratigraphic column of the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt (modified after [42]).
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Figure 3. (a) Geologic sketch map of the Tuwu porphyry Cu deposit (modified from [11]). Geological cross-section along section line A–A’ on map Figure 3a with lithology (b) and alteration and mineralization (c) in the Tuwu copper deposit (modified from [17]).
Figure 3. (a) Geologic sketch map of the Tuwu porphyry Cu deposit (modified from [11]). Geological cross-section along section line A–A’ on map Figure 3a with lithology (b) and alteration and mineralization (c) in the Tuwu copper deposit (modified from [17]).
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Figure 4. (a) Simplified geological map of the Linglong porphyry Cu deposit (modified from [14]). (b) Geological section along the No. 12 exploration line on map in (a) with lithology and orebodies (modified from [14]).
Figure 4. (a) Simplified geological map of the Linglong porphyry Cu deposit (modified from [14]). (b) Geological section along the No. 12 exploration line on map in (a) with lithology and orebodies (modified from [14]).
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Figure 5. (a) Simplified geological map (modified from [22]) and (b) histogram of the ZK001 Drill hole of the Chihu porphyry Cu deposit.
Figure 5. (a) Simplified geological map (modified from [22]) and (b) histogram of the ZK001 Drill hole of the Chihu porphyry Cu deposit.
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Figure 6. Photographs and photomicrographs of ore samples from the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt. (a) Quartz–chalcopyrite–pyrite–molybdenite vein in Cu–Mo ore from the Tuwu deposit; (b) quartz–molybdenite vein-type mineralization of the Tuwu deposit; (c) molybdenite with the feature of leaden, coexist with chalcopyrite and pyrite (reflected light) in Cu–Mo ore from the Tuwu deposit; (d) quartz–pyrite–molybdenite vein in silicified porphyry from the Linglong deposit; (e) quartz–pyrite–molybdenite vein in propylitic basalt from the Linglong deposit; (f) molybdenite coexist with chalcopyrite (reflected light) in Cu–Mo ore from the Linglong deposit; (g) two quartz–pyrite–molybdenite veins cut by epidote vein in mineralized porphyry from the Chihu deposit; (h) quartz–molybdenite vein cut by quartz veins in propylitic basalt from the Chihu deposit; (i) molybdenite, with leaden and fine-grained features, coexisting with chalcopyrite and pyrite (reflected light) in Cu–Mo ore from the Chihu deposit. Mineral abbreviations: Cpy, chalcopyrite; Mol, molybdenite; Py, pyrite; Qz quartz, Ep epidote.
Figure 6. Photographs and photomicrographs of ore samples from the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt. (a) Quartz–chalcopyrite–pyrite–molybdenite vein in Cu–Mo ore from the Tuwu deposit; (b) quartz–molybdenite vein-type mineralization of the Tuwu deposit; (c) molybdenite with the feature of leaden, coexist with chalcopyrite and pyrite (reflected light) in Cu–Mo ore from the Tuwu deposit; (d) quartz–pyrite–molybdenite vein in silicified porphyry from the Linglong deposit; (e) quartz–pyrite–molybdenite vein in propylitic basalt from the Linglong deposit; (f) molybdenite coexist with chalcopyrite (reflected light) in Cu–Mo ore from the Linglong deposit; (g) two quartz–pyrite–molybdenite veins cut by epidote vein in mineralized porphyry from the Chihu deposit; (h) quartz–molybdenite vein cut by quartz veins in propylitic basalt from the Chihu deposit; (i) molybdenite, with leaden and fine-grained features, coexisting with chalcopyrite and pyrite (reflected light) in Cu–Mo ore from the Chihu deposit. Mineral abbreviations: Cpy, chalcopyrite; Mol, molybdenite; Py, pyrite; Qz quartz, Ep epidote.
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Figure 7. Molybdenite Re–Os isotope analyses for the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt. (a,c,e) Isochron ages of the molybdenite from the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu porphyry Cu deposits, respectively. (b,d,f) Weighted average Re–Os model ages of analyses from the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu porphyry Cu deposits, respectively.
Figure 7. Molybdenite Re–Os isotope analyses for the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt. (a,c,e) Isochron ages of the molybdenite from the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu porphyry Cu deposits, respectively. (b,d,f) Weighted average Re–Os model ages of analyses from the Tuwu, Linglong, and Chihu porphyry Cu deposits, respectively.
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Figure 8. Summary of geochronological data of major porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt. Error bars are 2σ.
Figure 8. Summary of geochronological data of major porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt. Error bars are 2σ.
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Table 1. Geological characteristics of five deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt, Eastern Tianshan.
Table 1. Geological characteristics of five deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong porphyry Cu belt, Eastern Tianshan.
DepositsLocationMetalsReserve @ Ore GradeIntrusionOccurrence of OrebodyOre StylesOre MineralGangue MineralMajor AlterationReference
Fuxing92°21′10″ E, 42°04′50″ NCu–Moplagiogranite porphyrytabularveins, stockworks, veinlets, and disseminationsCcp, Py, Mo, Bn, Sp, CcQz, Kfs, Cal, Chl, Bio, Ms, Episilicification, chlorite–sericite, potassic, and phyllic [20,21]
Yandong92°31′30″ E, 42°05′28″ NCu–Mo2.1 [email protected]%plagiogranite porphyry, quartz albite porphyrytabularveinlets or disseminationsCcp, Py, Mo, Bn, CcQz, Ser, Chl, Bio, Amp, Epi, Anh, Calpotassic, phyllic, chlorite–sericite, and propylitic[19,42]
Tuwu92°36′24″ E, 42°06′55″ NCu–Mo0.9 [email protected]%plagiogranite porphyrytabular, veined, or lenticulardisseminated, vein, veinlet and disseminated, and scalyCcp, Py, Mo, Mag, Bn, Gl, SpQz, Ser, Ms, Chl, Epi, Bio, Cal, Pl, Ab, Klnearly potassic, phyllic, and pervasive propylitic[11,18]
Linglong92°47′57″ E, 42°07′46″ NCu–Moquartz albite porphyry, plagiogranite porphyrybanded, tabular, vein and beddeddisseminations, veins, or stockworksCcp, Py, Mo, Mag, LimQz, Pl, Ser, Chl, Epi, Bio, Calsilicification, sericitization, chloritization, epidotization, and carbonatation[14]
Chihu93°01′37″ E, 42°09′47″ NCu–Mo[email protected]% Granodiorite, plagiogranite porphyrytabulardisseminated, veinlet and disseminated, and veinletCcp, Py, Mo, Bn, CcQz, Ser, Pl, Chl, Epiquartz–sericitization, discontinuous argillization, and propylitic[22,43]
Abbreviations of alteration and minerals: Ab, albite; Anh, anhydrite; Bio, biotite; Bn, bornite; Cal, calcite; Cc, chalcocite; Chl, chlorite; Ccp, chalcopyrite; Epi, epidote; Gl, galena; Lim, limonite; Mal, malachite; Ms, muscovite; Kln, kaolinite; Kfs, K-feldspar; Mag, magnetite; Mo, molybdenite; Pl, plagioclase; Py, pyrite; Qz, quartz; Ser, sericite; Sp, sphalerite.
Table 2. Molybdenite Re–Os isotopic data for the Yandong porphyry Cu deposit.
Table 2. Molybdenite Re–Os isotopic data for the Yandong porphyry Cu deposit.
No.Sample No.Sampling LocationOccurrenceSample Weight
(g)
Re (ppm)Common Os (ppb)187Re (ppm)187Os (ppb)Model Age (Ma)
Drill HoleDepth (m)MeasuredErrorMeasuredErrorMeasuredErrorMeasuredErrorMeasuredError
1TWD-2401-14ZK2401230Qz–mol vein0.00235775.06.912.441.64487.14.4271016333.04.8
2TWD-2401-40ZK2401420Qz–mol–ccp–py vein0.002221063.011.961.3223.8066.87.5374626335.65.5
3TWD-2403-5ZK2403237Qz–mol–ccp–py vein0.002081656.120.118.8811.411040.912.7583237335.35.7
4TWD-2403-17ZK2403529Qz–mol–ccp vein0.00237415.62.88.7570.339261.21.8145610333.64.6
5TWD-2403-19ZK2403532Qz–mol–ccp vein0.00215267.01.91.0030.071167.81.29406335.44.6
618-LL-801-15ZK801100Qz–mol vein0.000539561.397.89.7610.4326009.561.531,862197317.44.9
7LL-801-17ZK801105Qz–mol vein0.000309018.2101.84.8950.2175668.164.029,864174315.45.1
818-LL1201-3ZK1201132Qz–mol vein0.000302225.017.81.8450.0821398.411.2736453315.24.6
9LL1201-17ZK1201138Qz–mol vein0.000303255.438.67.9820.3532046.124.310,75376314.65.3
10CH-001-25ZK001436Qz–mol vein0.0005318,040.0219.714.260.63111,338.5138.160,129362317.55.3
1118-CH-001-5ZK001434Qz–mol vein0.0005112,005.4122.719.540.8657545.677.140,005245317.44.9
12CH-001-31ZK001449Qz–mol vein0.000306356.157.98.040.3563994.936.421,106147316.34.8
13CH-001-23ZK001435Qz–mol vein0.000307116.875.64.8670.2154473.147.523,558135315.34.9
14CH-001-30ZK001448Qz–mol vein0.000304969.840.83.3440.1483123.625.616,512106316.54.5
15CH-001-33ZK001462Qz–mol–py vein0.000305418.954.13.2570.1443405.934.018,025146316.85.1
16CH-001-34ZK001463Qz–mol–py vein0.000305330.047.19.5960.4253350.029.617,760112317.44.6
17CH-001-38ZK001466Qz–mol–py vein0.000304370.936.23.3260.1472747.222.814,49387315.84.5
1818-CH-001-1ZK001422Qz–mol vein0.0003013,871.8185.36.4240.2848718.7116.545,944286315.55.6
Decay constant: λ187Re = 1.666 × 10−11 year−1 [58]. Uncertainty in the Re and Os concentrations includes errors associated with the weighing of the sample and diluent, the calibration error of the diluent, the mass spectrometry analytical error, and the measurement error of the isotope ratios for the test sample; the confidence level is 95%. Uncertainty in the Re–Os model ages includes the uncertainty of the 187Re decay constant, with a confidence level of 95%. The model age and isochron age were calculated using ISOPLOT 3.0 [60]. Uncertainties for ages are absolute (2σ).
Table 3. Isotopic ages of porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt.
Table 3. Isotopic ages of porphyry Cu deposits in the Tuwu–Yandong belt.
LocationsDating SamplesDating MethodsAges (Ma)References
Fuxing Plagiogranite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb332.1 ± 2.2[21]
MonzograniteSIMS zircon U–Pb328.4 ± 3.4[21]
Plagiogranite porphyryLA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb334.9 ± 2.2[62]
YandongDioriteLA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb348.3 ± 6[12]
Diorite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb340 ± 3[16]
Diorite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb338.6 ± 2.9[19]
Plagiogranite porphyrySHRIMP zircon U–Pb333 ± 4[63]
Plagiogranite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb332.2 ± 2.3[16]
Plagiogranite porphyrySHRIMP zircon U–Pb335 ± 3.7[45]
Plagiogranite porphyryLA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb339.3 ± 2.2[12]
Plagiogranite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb335.3 ± 2.9[19]
Quartz albite porphyryLA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb323.6 ± 2.5[12]
Quartz porphyryLA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb324.1 ± 2.3[12]
Quartz porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb327.6 ± 2.6[19]
MolybdeniteRe–Os isochron343 ± 26[25]
MolybdeniteRe–Os isochron331.3 ± 2.1[19]
Phyllic-altered plagiogranite porphyrySericite Ar–Ar plateau332.8 ± 3.8[24]
MolybdeniteRe–Os mean324.3 ± 2.7[24]
MolybdeniteMolybdenite Re–Os model326.2 ± 4.5[23]
Tuwu–YandongMolybdeniteRe–Os isochron322.7 ± 2.3[26]
TuwuPlagiogranite porphyrySHRIMP zircon U–Pb334 ± 3[63]
Plagiogranite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb334.7 ± 3[46]
Plagiogranite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb332.8 ± 2.5[17]
Plagiogranite porphyrySHRIMP zircon U–Pb332.3 ± 5.9[44]
MolybdeniteRe–Os isochron335.8 ± 3.3[11]
Phyllic-altered plagiogranite porphyrySericite Ar–Ar plateau328.1 ± 1.4[18]
MolybdeniteRe–Os isochron334.1 ± 3.3This study
LinglongQuartz albite porphyrySIMS zircon U–Pb318.6 ± 3.0[14]
MolybdeniteRe–Os isochron316.8 ± 3.7This study
ChihuPlagiogranite porphyrySHRIMP zircon U–Pb322 ± 10[43]
GranodioriteSIMS zircon U–Pb320.2 ± 2.4[22]
Porphyritic granodioriteSIMS zircon U–Pb314.5 ± 2.5[22]
MolybdeniteRe–Os isochron317.0 ± 3.6This study
Table 4. Summary of Re contents and model ages of molybdenite from the Tuwu porphyry Cu belt in Eastern Tianshan, NW China.
Table 4. Summary of Re contents and model ages of molybdenite from the Tuwu porphyry Cu belt in Eastern Tianshan, NW China.
Deposit NameSample No.Re (ppm)Model Age (Ma)References
MeasuredErrorMeasuredError
YandongYD5501-3233.21.9329.54.6[19]
YD5501-31165.91.3330.34.6
YD6303-195.70.8332.74.8
YD6307-161187.312.0333.85.2
YD6307-22132.51.0333.34.7
YD202-1470.84.7333.95.4[25]
YD202-2465.24.7333.95.7
YD202-3514.55.2337.75.7
YD202-4431.34.1337.95.5
YD202-5535.85.2340.75.4
YD202-6503.84.3335.85.4
YD13-218333.31.5324.92.0[24]
YD14-18746.74.4323.52.2
YX-07252.71.9326.24.5[23]
YD13-109690.02.3321.01.2[74]
YD13-18319.01.5320.61.6
YD13-44-4332.21.1323.61.2
Tuwu–YandongZK4002-168116793253[26]
ZK705-227. 81665113253
YZK001-27518.30.13185
YZK001-312209.11.13212
ZK705-472. 5321.11.53222
ZK004-650. 6257.81.33213
ZK001-74937.140.23245
Tuwu14TW-01509638335.24.7[11]
14TW-02486532335.44.5
14TW-03364425334.74.4
14TW-03513632335.44.4
14TW-03248315338.44.5
14TW-03417325336.14.3
18TWD-4803-14115215335.56.0
18TWD-4803-24111213335.35.5
TWD-2401-14775.06.9333.04.8This study
TWD-2401-401063.011.9335.65.5
TWD-2403-51656.120.1335.35.7
TWD-2403-17415.62.8333.64.6
TWD-2403-19267.01.9335.44.6
Linglong18-LL-801-159561.397.8317.44.9This study
LL-801-179018.2101.8315.45.1
18-LL1201-32225.017.8315.24.6
LL1201-173255.438.6314.65.3
ChihuCH-001-2518,040.0219.7317.55.3This study
18-CH-001-512,005.4122.7317.44.9
CH-001-316356.157.9316.34.8
CH-001-237116.875.6315.34.9
CH-001-304969.840.8316.54.5
CH-001-335418.954.1316.85.1
CH-001-345330.047.1317.44.6
CH-001-384370.936.2315.84.5
18-CH-001-113,871.8185.3315.55.6
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An, W.; Xue, C.; Zhao, Y.; Li, C. Two Periods of Porphyry Cu Mineralization and Metallogenic Implications in the Tuwu–Yandong Belt (NW China), Based on Re–Os Systematics of Molybdenite. Minerals 2022, 12, 1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091127

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An W, Xue C, Zhao Y, Li C. Two Periods of Porphyry Cu Mineralization and Metallogenic Implications in the Tuwu–Yandong Belt (NW China), Based on Re–Os Systematics of Molybdenite. Minerals. 2022; 12(9):1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091127

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An, Weicai, Chunji Xue, Yun Zhao, and Chao Li. 2022. "Two Periods of Porphyry Cu Mineralization and Metallogenic Implications in the Tuwu–Yandong Belt (NW China), Based on Re–Os Systematics of Molybdenite" Minerals 12, no. 9: 1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091127

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