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Volume 11
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Minerals, Volume 11, Issue 12 (December 2021) – 140 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Quartz from La Sassa (Tuscany, Italy) presents a unique luminescence related to intrinsic and extrinsic defects in the crystal lattice due to the growth mechanisms in hydrothermal conditions. The paper reports a full investigation of the La Sassa quartz, by a multi-analytical approach encompassing cathodoluminescence optical microscopy (OM-CL), laser-induced fluorescence (LIF), wavelength resolved thermally stimulated luminescence (WR-TSL), trace element analysis by mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and Raman spectroscopy (RS). The main luminescent centers are identified as alkali-compensated (Li+, Na+, K+) aluminum [AlO4/M+]0 centers substituting for Si, where the recombinations of a self-trapped exciton (STE) or an electron at a nonbridging oxygen hole center (NBOHC) are active. View this paper
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12 pages, 3284 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Flotation Recovery of Fine Molybdenite Particles Using a Coal Tar-Based Collector
by Yande Chao, Shulei Li, Lihui Gao, Lijuan Sun, Lingni Li, Na Chai and Yijun Cao
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1439; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121439 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2193
Abstract
Low flotation efficiency has always been a problem in the separation of low-grade molybdenum ores because of the finely disseminated nature and crystal anisotropy of molybdenite. In this study, a novel kerosene–coal tar collector (KCTC) was prepared and used to explore the feasibility [...] Read more.
Low flotation efficiency has always been a problem in the separation of low-grade molybdenum ores because of the finely disseminated nature and crystal anisotropy of molybdenite. In this study, a novel kerosene–coal tar collector (KCTC) was prepared and used to explore the feasibility of improving the recovery of fine molybdenite particles. The results showed that KCTC achieved better attaching performance than that shown by kerosene, and the surface coverage and attaching rate constant were improved significantly, especially for finer particles of −38 + 20 μm. Compared with kerosene, KCTC showed more affinity for molybdenite particles and greater adsorbed amounts of KCTC on molybdenite particles were achieved. Moreover, the composite collector was shown to float single molybdenite particles of different sizes, and it was found that the recovery of molybdenite particles of different sizes, particularly in the case of those at −20 μm, was improved dramatically by KCTC. The flotation results of actual molybdenum ores further confirmed that KCTC was beneficial to flotation recovery and the selectivity of molybdenite. This indicated that KCTC is a potential collector for the effective flotation of low-grade deposits of molybdenum ores, and more studies should be conducted on further use in industrial practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation Chemistry, Volume II)
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23 pages, 11295 KiB  
Article
Numerical Investigation on Influence of Two Combined Faults and Its Structure Features on Rock Burst Mechanism
by Anye Cao, Yaoqi Liu, Siqi Jiang, Qi Hao, Yujie Peng, Xianxi Bai and Xu Yang
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1438; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121438 - 19 Dec 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2725
Abstract
With the increase in coal mining depth, engineering geological conditions and the stress environment become more complex. Many rock bursts triggered by two combined faults have been observed in China, but the mechanism is not understood clearly. The focus of this research aims [...] Read more.
With the increase in coal mining depth, engineering geological conditions and the stress environment become more complex. Many rock bursts triggered by two combined faults have been observed in China, but the mechanism is not understood clearly. The focus of this research aims at investigating the influence of two combined faults on rock burst mechanisms. The six types of two combined faults were first introduced, and two cases were utilized to show the effects of two combined faults types on coal mining. The mechanical response of the numerical model with or without combined faults was compared, and a conceptual model was set up to explain the rock burst mechanism triggered by two combined faults. The influence of fault throw, dip, fault pillar width, and mining height on rock burst potential was analyzed. The main control factors of rock burst in six models that combined two faults were identified by an orthogonal experiment. Results show that six combinations of two faults can be identified, including stair-stepping fault, imbricate fault, graben fault, horst fault, back thrust fault, and ramp fault. The particular roof structure near the two combined faults mining preventing longwall face lateral abutment pressure from transferring to deep rock mass leads to stress concentration near the fault areas. Otherwise, a special roof structure causing the lower system stiffness of mining gives rise to the easier gathering of elastic energy in the coal pillars, which makes it easier to trigger a rock burst. There is a nonlinear relationship between fault parameters and static or dynamic load for graben faults mining. The longwall face has the highest rock burst risk when the fault throw is between 6 and 8 m, the fault dip is larger than 65°, the mining height is greater than 6 m, and the coal pillar width is less than 50 m. The stair-stepping, imbricate, horst, and ramp fault compared to the other fault types will produce higher dynamic load stress during longwall retreat. Fault pillar width is the most significant factor for different two combined faults, leading to the rise of static load stress and dynamic proneness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockburst Mechanism and Its Prevention and Control in Underground Mines)
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30 pages, 6044 KiB  
Review
Recent Advancements in Metallurgical Processing of Marine Minerals
by Katarzyna Ochromowicz, Kurt Aasly and Przemyslaw B. Kowalczuk
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1437; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121437 - 19 Dec 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4002
Abstract
Polymetallic manganese nodules (PMN), cobalt-rich manganese crusts (CRC) and seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) have been identified as important resources of economically valuable metals and critical raw materials. The currently proposed mineral processing operations are based on metallurgical approaches applied for land resources. Thus [...] Read more.
Polymetallic manganese nodules (PMN), cobalt-rich manganese crusts (CRC) and seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) have been identified as important resources of economically valuable metals and critical raw materials. The currently proposed mineral processing operations are based on metallurgical approaches applied for land resources. Thus far, significant endeavors have been carried out to describe the extraction of metals from PMN; however, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, it lacks a thorough review on recent developments in processing of CRC and SMS. This paper begins with an overview of each marine mineral. It is followed by a systematic review of common methods used for extraction of metals from marine mineral deposits. In this review, we update the information published so far in peer-reviewed and technical literature, and briefly provide the future perspectives for processing of marine mineral deposits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Engineering and Technology in Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)
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22 pages, 4485 KiB  
Article
Real-Time Electrical Conductivity Monitoring and Correlation with Sulfate Release and Acid Mine Drainage Potential from a Gold/Silver Paste Tailing Storage
by Eduardo Leiva, María Cayazzo and Mario Torres
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1436; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121436 - 18 Dec 2021
Viewed by 2199
Abstract
Safe disposal of tailings as high-density thickened tailings or paste tailings can reduce the environmental risks of conventional tailings deposits, reduce water use, minimize tailings storage facility footprints, reduce the potential for acid mine drainage (AMD), and minimize risks of failure, among other [...] Read more.
Safe disposal of tailings as high-density thickened tailings or paste tailings can reduce the environmental risks of conventional tailings deposits, reduce water use, minimize tailings storage facility footprints, reduce the potential for acid mine drainage (AMD), and minimize risks of failure, among other advantages. In the dewatering process, the addition of flocculants is key to improving the sedimentation of the tailings and the formation of a compact paste. Despite the environmental and operational advantages of using paste tailings, it is not clear how the chemical nature of coagulants and flocculants could influence the discharge of toxic elements (salts and metals) from tailings after storage. In this study, we show the results of the real-time evaluation of the release of polluting runoffs from a paste tailings deposit. To do this, we analyzed paste tailing samples for AMD potential through static and kinetic tests and monitored the electrical conductivity and real-time pH, evaluating the correlation with the sulfate in the thickener and downstream from the tailings deposit. Tailing samples have low sulfur content (<2%) and low acid-generating potential. Moreover, there is no evidence of a significant positive correlation (Pearson’s coefficient r < 0.8) between the sulfate concentrations with the pH or EC. Thus, the chemical nature of the paste tailings prior to discharge has no direct impact on the release of sulfate-rich runoffs from the tailings after its storage. This indicates that the tailings paste at the evaluated site is chemically stable in the short term. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Mineralogy and Biogeochemistry)
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8 pages, 4784 KiB  
Article
The Role of Aragonite in Producing the Microstructural Diversity of Serpulid Skeletons
by Olev Vinn
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1435; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121435 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1998
Abstract
Aragonite plays an important role in the biomineralization of serpulid polychaetes. Aragonitic structures are present in a wide range of serpulid species, but they mostly belong to one clade. Aragonitic structures are present in a wide range of marine environments, including the deep [...] Read more.
Aragonite plays an important role in the biomineralization of serpulid polychaetes. Aragonitic structures are present in a wide range of serpulid species, but they mostly belong to one clade. Aragonitic structures are present in a wide range of marine environments, including the deep ocean. Aragonitic tube microstructures were studied using a scanning electron microscope. X-ray powder diffraction was used to identify the aragonite. Aragonite is used to build five different types of microstructures in serpulid tubes. The most common aragonitic irregularly oriented prismatic structure (AIOP) is also, evolutionarily, the most primitive. Some aragonitic microstructures, such as the spherulitic prismatic (SPHP) structure, have likely evolved from the AIOP structure. Aragonitic microstructures in serpulids are far less numerous than calcitic microstructures, and they lack the complexity of advanced calcitic microstructures. The reason why aragonitic microstructures have remained less evolvable than calcitic microstructures is currently unknown, considering their fit with the current aragonite sea conditions (Paleogene–recent). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biominerals and Bio-Inspired Materials)
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18 pages, 4016 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study on the Origin and Characteristics of Chinese (Manas) and Russian (East Sayan) Green Nephrites
by Jiaxin Wang and Guanghai Shi
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1434; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121434 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2631
Abstract
Green nephrites are widely pursued for their mild texture and vivid color. In recent years, many Russian green nephrites appeared in China (the world’s largest nephrite market) and competed with the Chinese Manas green nephrites, which are traditionally highly valued. In this study, [...] Read more.
Green nephrites are widely pursued for their mild texture and vivid color. In recent years, many Russian green nephrites appeared in China (the world’s largest nephrite market) and competed with the Chinese Manas green nephrites, which are traditionally highly valued. In this study, we compared the appearance, mineralogy and geochemical features (with EPMA and LA-ICP-MS) of Chinese (Manas) and Russian (East Sayan) green nephrites to objectively characterize and distinguish between these two nephrites. Chinese (Manas) and Russian (East Sayan) green nephrites are mined from serpentinized ultramafic units in the northern Tian Shan and East Sayan orogen, respectively. In terms of appearance, the Manas green nephrites are slightly bluish or grayish, whilst their East Sayan counterparts are brighter (duck-egg cyan). The Manas nephrites commonly have a caramel color, crumple structure, characteristic white globules and sinuous veins, green stains and yellow–green veins, together with a local fibrous structure. The East Sayan green nephrites are more transparent, with a gentler fine texture, uniform color, many black spots and a few green spots. Some green nephrites from the Arahushun mine of East Sayan have an ice-like appearance. Microscopic petrography and EPMA analysis indicate that both the Manas and East Sayan green nephrites comprise mainly tremolite with minor actinolite. Minor minerals in the Manas samples include chromite, chlorite-group minerals, and uvarovite; whilst those in the East Sayan samples include actinolite, chromite, chlorite-group minerals, and bornite. Bornite is not found in any other sources of green nephrite, and thus is characteristic of Russian (East Sayan) green nephrites. LA-ICP-MS trace element data in their amphiboles and Single-Factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) results suggest that the differences in Cr, Zn, Y, Ba, and Sr contents and values of δEu, Eu/Sm, (La/Yb)N, (La/Sm)N, (Gd/Yb)N, ∑HREE, ∑LREE/∑HREE between the two nephrites are present, and can be used as their origin trace. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Colours in Minerals and Rocks)
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13 pages, 4037 KiB  
Article
Coal Ash Content Measurement Based on Pseudo-Dual Energy X-ray Transmission
by Xiufeng Zhang, Long Liang, Taiyou Li, Jiakun Tan, Xingguo Liang and Guangyuan Xie
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1433; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121433 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2549
Abstract
The real-time ash content measurement is the fundamental condition for the timely adjustment and intelligent control of operation parameters in coal production and utilization industry. In the present work, a real-time ash content analyzer based on the pseudo-dual energy X-ray transmission was developed. [...] Read more.
The real-time ash content measurement is the fundamental condition for the timely adjustment and intelligent control of operation parameters in coal production and utilization industry. In the present work, a real-time ash content analyzer based on the pseudo-dual energy X-ray transmission was developed. The feasibility of this X-ray ash content analyzer was validated by the linear relationship between ash content and five characteristic parameters of X-ray. The conditions of wave filter, tube voltage, and tube current were optimized. The comparison between the ash contents measured by muffle furnace and the X-ray ash content analyzer was conducted in laboratory and industry. It was found that the absolute error was smaller than 1% for clean coal with ash content of approximately 10%, and the possibility of the absolute error smaller than 0.5% was higher than 85%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)
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13 pages, 3882 KiB  
Article
Beneficiation of Low-Grade Rare Earth Ore from Khalzan Buregtei Deposit (Mongolia) by Magnetic Separation
by Ilhwan Park, Yuki Kanazawa, Naoya Sato, Purevdelger Galtchandmani, Manis Kumar Jha, Carlito Baltazar Tabelin, Sanghee Jeon, Mayumi Ito and Naoki Hiroyoshi
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1432; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121432 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4479
Abstract
The global demand for rare earth elements (REEs) is expected to increase significantly because of their importance in renewable energy and clean storage technologies, which are critical for drastic carbon dioxide emission reduction to achieve a carbon-neutral society. REE ore deposits around the [...] Read more.
The global demand for rare earth elements (REEs) is expected to increase significantly because of their importance in renewable energy and clean storage technologies, which are critical for drastic carbon dioxide emission reduction to achieve a carbon-neutral society. REE ore deposits around the world are scarce and those that have been identified but remain unexploited need to be developed to supply future demands. In this study, the Khalzan Buregtei deposit located in western Mongolia was studied with the aim of upgrading low-grade REE ore via magnetic separation techniques. The total REE content in this ore was ~6720 ppm (~3540 ppm light REE (LREE) + ~3180 ppm heavy REE (HREE)) with bastnaesite, pyrochlore, synchysite, and columbite-(Fe) identified as the main REE-bearing minerals. As the particle size fraction decreased from −4.0 + 2.0 mm to −0.5 + 0.1 mm, the recovery by dry high-intensity magnetic separation (DHIMS) increased from 20% to 70% of total rare earth oxide (TREO) while the enrichment ratio reached 2.8 from 1.3. Although effective, gangue minerals such as quartz and aluminosilicates were recovered (~22%) due most likely to insufficient liberation. Meanwhile, the wet high-intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS) could produce a magnetic concentrate with TREO recovery of ~80% and enrichment ratio of 5.5 under the following conditions: particle size fraction, −106 + 75 μm; feed flow rate, 3.2 L/min; magnetic induction, 0.8 T. These results indicate that combining DHIMS and WHIMS to upgrade the low-grade REE ore from the Khalzan Buregtei deposit is an effective approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Production of Metals for Low-Carbon Technologies)
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25 pages, 9594 KiB  
Article
Problems of Estimating the Resources of Accompanying Elements: A Case Study from the Cu-Ag Rudna Deposit (Legnica-Głogów Copper District, Poland)
by Justyna Auguścik-Górajek, Jacek Mucha, Monika Wasilewska-Błaszczyk and Wojciech Kaczmarek
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121431 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2111
Abstract
As a result of the exploitation of ore deposits, in addition to the main elements, the accompanying elements are also partially recovered. Some of them increase the profitability of exploitation, while others reduce it because they hinder the recovery of the main elements [...] Read more.
As a result of the exploitation of ore deposits, in addition to the main elements, the accompanying elements are also partially recovered. Some of them increase the profitability of exploitation, while others reduce it because they hinder the recovery of the main elements and thus increase the costs of the recovery process. A comprehensive economic calculation to assess the profitability of ore mining depends on an appropriately accurate estimation of the resources of both the main and associated elements. This issue was analyzed with the example of the Cu-Ag Rudna ore deposit (LGCD, Poland). The subject of the assessment was the resources prediction accuracy of the main element (Cu) and four (4) accompanying elements (Co, Ni, Pb, and V) using geostatistical estimation method, in particular the ordinary kriging after the estimation of the relative variograms for describing the spatial variability structures of elements abundance. It was found that the standard kriging errors (deviations) in accompanying elements resources that are scheduled for exploitation within a one-year period in some parts of deposits are drastically greater (2 to 5 times) than the estimation errors of the main element resources. This is due to the sparse sampling pattern for their determinations and/or the high variability (among others nugget effect) of their abundance. In this situation, without additional sampling and a denser sampling pattern, the possibilities of a reliable assessment of the influence of accompanying elements on the economic consequences of exploitation are very limited. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geostatistical Modeling of the Cu Ore Deposits)
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14 pages, 2401 KiB  
Article
The Separation of Carbonaceous Matter from Refractory Gold Ore Using Multi-Stage Flotation: A Case Study
by Sugyeong Lee, Charlotte E. Gibson and Ahmad Ghahreman
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1430; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121430 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2674
Abstract
As a pre-treatment method of refractory gold ore, carbonaceous matter (C-matter) flotation was investigated with multi-stage flotation by rougher, scavenger, and cleaner stages. Different dosages of kerosene and MIBC (4-Methyl-2-pentanol) were applied and the optimum dosage was selected by testing in each flotation [...] Read more.
As a pre-treatment method of refractory gold ore, carbonaceous matter (C-matter) flotation was investigated with multi-stage flotation by rougher, scavenger, and cleaner stages. Different dosages of kerosene and MIBC (4-Methyl-2-pentanol) were applied and the optimum dosage was selected by testing in each flotation stage. With the combination of each stage, four circuit designs were suggested, which were a single-stage rougher flotation (R), rougher-scavenger flotation (R+S), rougher-scavenger-scavenger cleaner flotation (R+S+SC), and rougher-rougher cleaner-scavenger-scavenger cleaner flotations (R+S+RC+SC). The results indicated that the scavenger flotation increased C-matter recovery but reduced C-matter grade compared with single-stage rougher flotation. Cleaning of the scavenger flotation concentrate improved C-matter grade significantly, but reduced recovery slightly. Cleaning of the rougher flotation concentrate achieved overall improved selectivity in flotation. A combination of rougher-scavenger flotation followed by cleaning of both concentrates (R+S+RC+SC) resulted in 73% C-matter recovery and a combined cleaner concentrate grade of 4%; the final tailings C-matter grade was 0.9%, where the C-matter remaining in the tailings was locked, and fine grained. The results demonstrate the need for the multi-stage flotation of C-matter from refractory gold ore to achieve selective separation and suggested the potential of C-matter flotation as the pre-treatment for efficient gold production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation Reagents, Volume II)
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22 pages, 38619 KiB  
Review
Production Methods for Regular Aggregates and Innovative Developments in Poland
by Tomasz Gawenda
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1429; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121429 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3157
Abstract
The aim of this article is to present possibilities of producing aggregates with an increased content of regular particles in some well-known examples, as well as to present previously unused methods of aggregate production. Traditional aggregate production systems require the use of three [...] Read more.
The aim of this article is to present possibilities of producing aggregates with an increased content of regular particles in some well-known examples, as well as to present previously unused methods of aggregate production. Traditional aggregate production systems require the use of three or four grinding stages (depending on the particle size of the feed), but fine fractions contain approximately 10% irregular grains on average. The conducted research has shown that in innovative patented technological systems, it is possible to obtain regular aggregates with a share of irregular grains below 3%. The separated irregular aggregates can be crushed again or used for other purposes. The advantages of such inventions include less grinding stages, reduced dust, and lower energy consumption. Regular aggregates also have benefits compared to typical ones. The analyzed aggregate products from various mines showed that regular aggregates have better properties, for example, higher resistance to grinding and abrasion. This article also describes the advantages of using such aggregates for concrete or other applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selective Disintegration: Theory and Practice)
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8 pages, 1251 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue “Advanced Techniques and Efficiency Assessment of Mechanical Processing”—Editorial Note and Critical Review of the Problems
by Daniel Saramak
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121428 - 17 Dec 2021
Viewed by 1457
Abstract
The value chain of metal production consists of a number of processing steps that result in obtaining the final metal product from the given raw material [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Techniques and Efficiency Assessment of Mechanical Processing)
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16 pages, 4755 KiB  
Article
Determination of Abrasiveness in Copper-Gold Sulfide Ores: A Contribution to the Geometallurgical Model of the Sossego Deposit
by Petterson de Azevedo Barbosa, Maurício Guimarães Bergerman, Elisabeth da Fonseca and Rogerio Kwitko-Ribeiro
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121427 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2613
Abstract
The geological context of this study is established in the iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposit of Sossego (Canaã dos Carajás, Brazil), where hydrothermal alterations in shear zones concentrated the metals of interest and added new characteristics to the metavolcanic-sedimentary and granite rocks. The mineral [...] Read more.
The geological context of this study is established in the iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposit of Sossego (Canaã dos Carajás, Brazil), where hydrothermal alterations in shear zones concentrated the metals of interest and added new characteristics to the metavolcanic-sedimentary and granite rocks. The mineral transformation of rocks by hypersaline fluids enriched in metals and silica also modifies some metallurgical properties, such as abrasiveness. Special bench tests on rock drill cores are used in mapping the abrasiveness of rocks, with the Bond abrasion test being more commonly used in the mining industry, but it has a restrictive sampling protocol and mass requirement for geometallurgical studies. As a counterpoint, the test of the Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées/Central Laboratory of Bridges and Roads (LCPC) requires a smaller amount of fine material and a finer granulometric range. The study on the use of LCPC was implemented in 40 samples, using Bond Ai as a reference. The results showed a strong correlation between both methodologies (R2 = 95%), validating the use of LCPC to quantify abrasiveness in the Sossego mine. It was also possible to classify the most abrasive lithologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ore Characterization Methods for Comminution)
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18 pages, 6302 KiB  
Article
Diversity of Pyrite-Hosted Solid Inclusions and Their Metallogenic Implications—A Case Study from the Myszków Mo–Cu–W Porphyry Deposit (the Kraków–Lubliniec Fault Zone, Poland)
by Beata Naglik, Magdalena Dumańska-Słowik, Tomasz Toboła, Paweł Derkowski, Ryszard Habryn and Marek Markowiak
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121426 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3321
Abstract
Pyrite from the central part of the Myszków porphyry deposit in Poland was investigated using a combination of reflected and transmitted polarizing microscopy, back-scattered imaging with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Raman micro-spectroscopy. Five generations of pyrite (I–V) found in hydrothermal veins were distinguished, [...] Read more.
Pyrite from the central part of the Myszków porphyry deposit in Poland was investigated using a combination of reflected and transmitted polarizing microscopy, back-scattered imaging with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Raman micro-spectroscopy. Five generations of pyrite (I–V) found in hydrothermal veins were distinguished, differing in morphology, microtexture, and the types and amounts of solid inclusions. In general, pyrite hosts a diversity of mineral inclusions, including both gangue and ore phases, i.e., chlorite, quartz, monazite, cerianite-(Ce), xenotime, K-feldspars, albite, sericite, barite, magnetite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, bastnaesite (Ce), bismuthinite, native silver, cassiterite, rutile, anatase, and aikinite-group species. The presence of inclusions is good evidence of various stages of the evolution of the hydrothermal lode system ranging from high- to low-temperature conditions. During the formation of stockworks, some fluctuations in the physicochemical conditions of mineralizing fluids were indicated by the occurrence of cassiterite formed from acidic, reducing solutions, and hematite hosted in xenotime or REE phases found in pyrite, which signal more oxidizing conditions. Periodically, some episodes of boiling in the hydrothermal, porphyry-related system were recorded. They were mainly evidenced by the presence of (1) lattice-bladed calcite found in the close vicinity of pyrite II, (2) irregular grain edges of pyrite I, (3) clustered micropores in pyrite I, and (4) the variety of mineral inclusions hosted in I and II generations of pyrite. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid, Melt and Solid Inclusions as a Petrogenetic Indicators)
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21 pages, 3403 KiB  
Review
Titanium: An Overview of Resources and Production Methods
by Mohammed El Khalloufi, Olivier Drevelle and Gervais Soucy
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1425; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121425 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 18795
Abstract
For several decades, the metallurgical industry and the research community worldwide have been challenged to develop energy-efficient and low-cost titanium production processes. The expensive and energy-consuming Kroll process produces titanium metal commercially, which is highly matured and optimized. Titanium’s strong affinity for oxygen [...] Read more.
For several decades, the metallurgical industry and the research community worldwide have been challenged to develop energy-efficient and low-cost titanium production processes. The expensive and energy-consuming Kroll process produces titanium metal commercially, which is highly matured and optimized. Titanium’s strong affinity for oxygen implies that conventional Ti metal production processes are energy-intensive. Over the past several decades, research and development have been focusing on new processes to replace the Kroll process. Two fundamental groups are categorized for these methods: thermochemical and electrochemical. This literature review gives an insight into the titanium industry, including the titanium resources and processes of production. It focuses on ilmenite as a major source of titanium and some effective methods for producing titanium through extractive metallurgy processes and presents a critical view of the opportunities and challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Engineering and Technology in Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)
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15 pages, 9947 KiB  
Article
Three-Dimensional Audio-Magnetotelluric Imaging including Surface Topography of the Cimabanshuo Porphyry Copper Deposit, Tibet
by Ping Qi, Yaotian Yin, Sheng Jin, Wenbo Wei, Liuyang Xu, Hao Dong and Jinhui Huang
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1424; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121424 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3394
Abstract
Cimabanshuo deposit is a newly discovered porphyry copper (Cu) deposit with giant metallogenic potential, found in the western segment of the Gangdese metallogenic belt, Tibet. The average elevation of the deposit is greater than 5500 m and the terrain on which it is [...] Read more.
Cimabanshuo deposit is a newly discovered porphyry copper (Cu) deposit with giant metallogenic potential, found in the western segment of the Gangdese metallogenic belt, Tibet. The average elevation of the deposit is greater than 5500 m and the terrain on which it is found is steep and complex. Therefore, it is untraversed, and the existing exploration works on it are weak. We used 59 AMT sites belonging to an array covering the main, proven mineralization zone and ore bodies of this deposit for an analysis of its underground electrical structure. Dimensionality and strike analysis revealed the apparent three-dimensional (3D) features near the Cu ore bodies. 3D inversion with topography was conducted for the AMT array data. A large range of high-resistivity anomaly (~500–2000 Ωm) appears beneath the proven Cu mineralization zone and ore bodies, which is interpreted as intrusive rocks with potassic alteration. Although containing chalcopyrite, it is characterized by middle–high resistivity due to a low sulfide content and poor connectivity. Moreover, a series of scattered conductors (~10–300 Ωm) around the Cu ore bodies are distributed in the shallow layer from near the surface to ~200 m, possibly indicating phyllic alteration containing pyritization and connected metal sulfides. The proven ore bodies of Cimabanshuo are mainly located at the junction regions between high-resistivity intrusive rocks and high-conductivity sericitization alteration zones. According to this research, the 3D inversion with topography of AMT data can visually display the 3D distribution of intrusive rocks and alteration zones beneath porphyry Cu deposits in high-elevation regions, and provides a reference for further exploration works. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Methods and Technologies for Mineral Geological and Geophysical Exploration in China)
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24 pages, 4099 KiB  
Article
Microbial Diversity and P Content Changes after the Application of Sewage Sludge and Glyphosate to Soil
by Urszula Wydro, Elżbieta Wołejko, Bożena Łozowicka and Agata Jabłońska-Trypuć
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1423; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121423 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2233
Abstract
Pesticides, despite their side effects, are still being used in almost every agriculture, horticulture, maintaining municipal greenery in urban areas and even in home gardens. They influence human life and health and the functioning of entire ecosystems, including inanimate elements such as water [...] Read more.
Pesticides, despite their side effects, are still being used in almost every agriculture, horticulture, maintaining municipal greenery in urban areas and even in home gardens. They influence human life and health and the functioning of entire ecosystems, including inanimate elements such as water and soil. The aim of the study was the evaluation of the suitability of sewage sludge in improving the quality of soil treated with a non-selective herbicide-glyphosate, applied as Roundup 360 SL. A pot experiment was conducted with the use of two arable soils (MS and OS), which were amended with sewage sludge (SS), glyphosate (GL) and sewage sludge with glyphosate (SS+GL). Soil samples were taken after 24 h, 144 h and 240 h and total phosphorus (TP) content (TP), total number of bacteria/fungi, activity of dehydrogenases (Dha), acidic phosphatase (Acp), alkaline phosphatase (Alp), genetic biodiversity of bacteria/fungi using the terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism method were determined. The application of SS and GL to OS caused an increase in Acp (approximately 35%) and a decrease in Alp activity (approximately 20%). Additionally, GL may influence on an increase in the number of fungi and the decrease in the number of bacteria. In soil with SS+GL increase in the fungal diversity in MS and OS was also observed. Moreover, a positive between TP and the number of bacteria and the activity of phosphatases correlation was reported. The obtained results indicate that analyzed sewage sludge could be potentially applied into soil in in situ scale and could constitute a valuable reclamation material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Mineral-Based Amendments, Volume II)
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16 pages, 2092 KiB  
Article
Potential Loss of Toxic Elements from Slope Arable Soil Erosion into Watershed in Southwest China: Effect of Spatial Distribution and Land-Uses
by Ya Gao, Feipeng Li, Lingchen Mao, Bihan Gu, Changkang Peng, Qiuning Yang, Longchi Lu, Xilin Chen, Daofang Zhang and Hong Tao
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1422; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121422 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2015
Abstract
The watershed-scale distribution and loss of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) through soil erosion from slope lands to a watershed has not yet been systematically studied, especially in small mountain watersheds with high geological background PTEs in Southwest China. In this study, the spatial [...] Read more.
The watershed-scale distribution and loss of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) through soil erosion from slope lands to a watershed has not yet been systematically studied, especially in small mountain watersheds with high geological background PTEs in Southwest China. In this study, the spatial distribution, loss intensities and ecological risks of 12 PTEs were investigated in 101 soil samples from four types of land use in a typical watershed, Guizhou Province. Moreover, in order to avoid over- or underestimation of the contamination level in such specific geologies with significant variability in natural PTE distribution, the local background values (local BVs) were calculated by statistical methods. The dry arable land had the highest loss intensity of PTEs and was the largest contributor of PTEs (more than 80%) in the watershed, even though it covers a much smaller area compared to the forest land. The loss of Cd, As, Sb, and Hg from slope arable lands into the watershed leads to a relatively high potential ecological risk. The study suggested that both PTEs content with different types of land-uses and intensities of soil loss are of great importance for PTEs’ risk assessment in the small watershed within a high geological background region. Furthermore, in order to reduce the loss of PTEs in soil, the management of agricultural activities in arable land, especially the slope arable land, is necessary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concentration and Distribution of Heavy Metals in Soils)
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30 pages, 19881 KiB  
Article
Quantitative X-ray Maps Analaysis of Composition and Microstructure of Permian High-Temperature Relicts in Acidic Rocks from the Sesia-Lanzo Zone Eclogitic Continental Crust, Western Alps
by Michele Zucali, Luca Corti, Manuel Roda, Gaetano Ortolano, Roberto Visalli and Davide Zanoni
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1421; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121421 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2282
Abstract
Three samples of meta-acidic rocks with pre-Alpine metamorphic relicts from the Sesia-Lanzo Zone eclogitic continental crust were investigated using stepwise controlled elemental maps by means of the Quantitative X-ray Maps Analyzer (Q-XRMA). Samples were chosen with the aim of analysing the reacting zones [...] Read more.
Three samples of meta-acidic rocks with pre-Alpine metamorphic relicts from the Sesia-Lanzo Zone eclogitic continental crust were investigated using stepwise controlled elemental maps by means of the Quantitative X-ray Maps Analyzer (Q-XRMA). Samples were chosen with the aim of analysing the reacting zones along the boundaries between the pre-Alpine and Alpine mineral phases, which developed in low chemically reactive systems. The quantitative data treatment of the X-ray images was based on a former multivariate statistical analytical stage followed by a sequential phase and sub-phase classification and permitted to isolate and to quantitatively investigate the local paragenetic equilibria. The parageneses thus observed were interpreted as related to the pre-Alpine metamorphic or magmatic stages as well as to local Alpine re-equilibrations. On the basis of electron microprobe analysis, specific compositional ranges were defined in micro-domains of the relict and new paragenetic equilibria. In this way calibrated compositional maps were obtained and used to contour different types of reacting boundaries between adjacent solid solution phases. The pre-Alpine and Alpine mineral parageneses thus obtained allowed to perform geothermobarometry on a statistically meaningful and reliable dataset. In general, metamorphic temperatures cluster at 600–700 °C and 450–550 °C, with lower temperatures referred to a retrograde metamorphic re-equilibration. In all the cases described, pre-Alpine parageneses were overprinted by an Alpine metamorphic mineral assemblage. Pressure-temperature estimates of the Alpine stage averagely range between 420 to 550 °C and 12 to 16.5 kbar. The PT constraints permitted to better define the pre-Alpine metamorphic scenario of the western Austroalpine sectors, as well as to better understand the influence of the pre-Alpine metamorphic inheritance on the forthcoming Alpine tectonic evolution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural and Metamorphic Evolutions of the Pre-Alpine Lithosphere of the Alps)
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14 pages, 9554 KiB  
Article
Ferrotorryweiserite, Rh5Fe10S16, a New Mineral Species from the Sisim Placer Zone, Eastern Sayans, Russia, and the Torryweiserite–Ferrotorryweiserite Series
by Andrei Y. Barkov, Nadezhda D. Tolstykh, Nobumichi Tamura, Robert F. Martin, Andrew M. McDonald and Louis J. Cabri
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1420; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121420 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2145
Abstract
Ferrotorryweiserite, Rh5Fe10S16, occurs as small grains (≤20 µm) among droplet-like inclusions (up to 50 μm in diameter) of platinum-group minerals (PGM), in association with oberthürite or Rh-bearing pentlandite, laurite, and a Pt-Pd-Fe alloy (likely isoferroplatinum and Fe-Pd-enriched [...] Read more.
Ferrotorryweiserite, Rh5Fe10S16, occurs as small grains (≤20 µm) among droplet-like inclusions (up to 50 μm in diameter) of platinum-group minerals (PGM), in association with oberthürite or Rh-bearing pentlandite, laurite, and a Pt-Pd-Fe alloy (likely isoferroplatinum and Fe-Pd-enriched platinum), hosted by placer grains of Os-Ir alloy (≤0.5 mm) in the River Ko deposit. The latter is a part of the Sisim placer zone, which is likely derived from ultramafic units of the Lysanskiy layered complex, southern Krasnoyarskiy kray, Russia. The mineral is opaque, gray to brownish gray in reflected light, very weakly bireflectant, not pleochroic to weakly pleochroic (grayish to light brown tints), and weakly anisotropic. The calculated density is 5.93 g·cm–3. Mean results (and ranges) of four WDS analyses are: Ir 18.68 (15.55–21.96), Rh 18.34 (16.32–20.32), Pt 0.64 (0.19–1.14), Ru 0.03 (0.00–0.13), Os 0.07 (0.02–0.17), Fe 14.14 (13.63–14.64), Ni 13.63 (12.58–14.66), Cu 4.97 (3.42–6.41), Co 0.09 (0.07–0.11), S 29.06 (28.48–29.44), and total 99.66 wt.%. They correspond to the following formula calculated for a total of 31 atoms per formula unit: (Rh3.16Ir1.72Pt0.06Ru0.01Os0.01)Σ4.95(Fe4.48Ni4.11Cu1.38Co0.03)Σ10.00S16.05. The results of synchrotron micro-Laue diffraction studies indicate that ferrotorryweiserite is trigonal; its probable space group is R3¯m (#166) based on its Ni-analog, torryweiserite. The unit-cell parameters refined from 177 reflections are a = 7.069 (2) Å, c = 34.286 (11) Å, V = 1484 (1) Å3, and Z = 3. The c:a ratio is 4.8502. The strongest eight peaks in the X-ray diffraction pattern derived from results of micro-Laue diffraction study [d in Å(hkil)(I)] are 2.7950 (202¯5) (100); 5.7143 (0006) (60); 1.7671 (224¯0) (44.4); 3.0486 (202¯1) (39.4); 5.7650 (101¯2) (38.6); 2.5956 (202¯7) (37.8); 3.0058 (112¯6) (36.5); and 1.5029 (42¯ 2¯12) (35.3). Ferrotorryweiserite and the associated PGM crystallized from microvolumes of residual melt at late stages of crystallization of grains of Os- and Ir-dominant alloys occurred in lode zones of chromitites of the Lysanskiy layered complex. In a particular case, the residual melt is disposed peripherally around a core containing a disequilibrium association of magnesian olivine (Fo72.9–75.6) and albite (Ab81.6–86.4), with the development of skeletal crystals of titaniferous augite: Wo40.8–43.2En26.5–29.3Fs20.3–22.6Aeg6.9–9.5 (2.82–3.12 wt.% TiO2). Ferrotorryweiserite represents the Fe-dominant analog of torryweiserite. We also report occurrences of ferrotorryweiserite in the Marathon deposit, Coldwell Complex, Ontario, Canada, and infer the existence of the torryweiserite–ferrotorryweiserite solid solution in other deposits and complexes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Platinum-Group Elements and Platinum-Group Minerals: Inferences from Field, Geochemical, Mineralogical, and Petrological Findings)
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10 pages, 2913 KiB  
Article
Utilization of Metallurgy—Beneficiation Combination Strategy to Decrease TiO2 in Titanomagnetite Concentrate before Smelting
by Pan Chen, Yameng Sun, Lei Yang, Rui Xu, Yangyong Luo, Xianyun Wang, Jian Cao and Jinggang Wang
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1419; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121419 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2087
Abstract
Excessive TiO2 in titanomagnetite concentrates (TC) causes unavoidable problems in subsequent smelting. At present, this issue cannot be addressed using traditional mineral processing technology. Herein, a strategy of metallurgy-beneficiation combination to decrease the TiO2 grade in TC before smelting was proposed. [...] Read more.
Excessive TiO2 in titanomagnetite concentrates (TC) causes unavoidable problems in subsequent smelting. At present, this issue cannot be addressed using traditional mineral processing technology. Herein, a strategy of metallurgy-beneficiation combination to decrease the TiO2 grade in TC before smelting was proposed. Roasting TC with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) together with magnetic separation proved to be a viable strategy. Under optimal conditions (roasting temperature = 1400 °C, CaCO3 ratio = 20%, and magnetic intensity = 0.18 T), iron and titanium was separated efficiently (Fe grade: 56.6 wt.%; Fe recovery: 70 wt.%; TiO2 grade 3 wt.%; TiO2 removal: 84.1 wt.%). X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis were used to study the mechanisms. The results showed that Ti in TC could react with CaO to form CaTiO3, and thermodynamic calculations provided a relevant theoretical basis. In sum, the metallurgy-beneficiation combination strategy was proven as an effective method to decrease unwanted TiO2 in TC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermochemical Processing of Low-Grade Ores and Mineral-Related Wastes)
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18 pages, 35347 KiB  
Article
NMR Spectral Characteristics of Ultrahigh Pressure High Temperature Impact Glasses of the Giant Kara Crater (Pay-Khoy, Russia)
by Vladimir Lyutoev, Tatyana Shumilova, Anton Mazur and Peter Tolstoy
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1418; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121418 - 15 Dec 2021
Viewed by 2074
Abstract
In this study, we carried out the analysis of the impact melt vein glasses from the Kara impact crater (Russia) in comparison to low-pressure impact melt glasses (tektites) of the Zhamanshin crater (Kazakhstan). 27Al, 23Na, and 29Si MAS NMR spectra [...] Read more.
In this study, we carried out the analysis of the impact melt vein glasses from the Kara impact crater (Russia) in comparison to low-pressure impact melt glasses (tektites) of the Zhamanshin crater (Kazakhstan). 27Al, 23Na, and 29Si MAS NMR spectra of the samples of these glasses were analyzed. The samples of the natural glass contained inclusions of crystalline phases, paramagnetic elements that greatly complicate and distort the NMR signals from the glass phase itself. Taking into account the Mossbauer distribution of Fe in these glasses, the analysis of the spectra of MAS NMR of glass network-former (Si, Al) and potential network-modifiers (Na) of nuclei leads to the conclusion that the Kara impact melt vein glasses are characterized by complete polymerization of (Si,Al)O4 tetrahedral structural units. The NMR features of the glasses are consistent with the vein hypothesis of their formation under conditions of high pressures and temperatures resulting in their fluidity, relatively slow solidification with partial melt differentiation, polymerization, and precipitation of mineral phases as the impact melt cools. The 70 Ma stability of the Kara impact vein glass can be explained by the stabilization of the glass network with primary fine-dispersed pyroxene and coesite precipitates and by the high polymerization level of the impact glass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue NMR Spectroscopy in Mineralogy and Crystal Structures)
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24 pages, 5517 KiB  
Article
Recently Discovered Thick Bentonite Bed Hosted by the Lithothamnium Limestones (Badenian) in the Polish Part of the Carpathian Foredeep: The Evidence for Volcanic Origin
by Katarzyna Górniak, Tadeusz Szydłak, Piotr Wyszomirski, Adam Gaweł and Małgorzata Niemiec
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1417; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121417 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2246
Abstract
In this paper, we discuss the hypothesis on the volcanic origin of the precursor sediments for a thick (0.6 m) clay bed, hosted by the sequence of lithothamnium limestones of the Pińczów Formation. Combined X-ray powder diffraction, imaging methods (optical and electron microscopy), [...] Read more.
In this paper, we discuss the hypothesis on the volcanic origin of the precursor sediments for a thick (0.6 m) clay bed, hosted by the sequence of lithothamnium limestones of the Pińczów Formation. Combined X-ray powder diffraction, imaging methods (optical and electron microscopy), and chemical analysis were used to document the volcanic markers, which were preserved in the rock studied. The results obtained show that the clay bed discussed is bentonite in origin. This bentonite, which can be called Drugnia Rządowa bentonite, is composed almost entirely of montmorillonite with little admixtures of quartz and biotite. A small amount of calcite is present, but only in the top of the bed. Despite that, the bentonite contains nothing but clay material—it is a model example of entirely altered pyroclastic rock, which retains texture originally developed in volcanic glass fragments and reveals the preserved original features of the precursor fallout pyroclastic deposits (rhyolitic in character). The thick bentonite beds, discovered for the first time within the Badenian lithothamnium limestones of the Pińczów Formation, can be considered as a record of a violent, explosive volcanic event related to the closure of the Outer Carpathian basin and the development of the Carpathian Foredeep. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrology and Evolution of the Outer Carpathian Mountains)
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24 pages, 6173 KiB  
Article
Organic Petrographic and Geochemical Evaluation of the Black Shale of the Duwi Formation, El Sebaiya, Nile Valley, Egypt
by Esmat Abou El-Anwar, Salman Salman, Doaa Mousa, Sami Aita, Walid Makled and Thomas Gentzis
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1416; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121416 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3095
Abstract
This study evaluates the palynologic, organic, inorganic, and petrographic properties of organic-rich black shale (Mahamid Mine) in the El Sebaiya area, Nile Valley, Egypt. Black shale is composed of quartz (50%), calcite (10%), kaolinite (25%) and montmorillonite (15%). Organic and inorganic analyses revealed [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the palynologic, organic, inorganic, and petrographic properties of organic-rich black shale (Mahamid Mine) in the El Sebaiya area, Nile Valley, Egypt. Black shale is composed of quartz (50%), calcite (10%), kaolinite (25%) and montmorillonite (15%). Organic and inorganic analyses revealed that this shale was deposited under oxic to anoxic marine conditions during strong chemical weathering. Black shale has poor to very good organic richness, and poor to fair hydrocarbon potential. Organic petrography indicates that the kerogen is mixed types II/III and III and is immature to marginally mature (%VRo is 0.44 and 0.53). Liptinite macerals consist of alginite, cutinite, and bituminite. The hydrocarbon products to be generated at higher maturity are expected to be oil and gas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Organic Matter in Sedimentary Systems: Insights from Organic Petrology and Organic Geochemistry)
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15 pages, 2548 KiB  
Article
Organic Petrology and Thermal Maturity of Dispersed Organic Matter from the Ramalhal-1 Well (Lusitanian Basin, Portugal)
by Paula Alexandra Gonçalves, João Graciano Mendonça Filho and Deolinda Flores
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1415; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121415 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2242
Abstract
Organic petrology is an important tool used to characterize dispersed organic matter (DOM) in sediments and sedimentary rocks, and to assess its thermal maturity. This study was carried out on 33 cutting samples (Middle-Upper Jurassic) from the Ramalhal-1 well to characterize the particulate [...] Read more.
Organic petrology is an important tool used to characterize dispersed organic matter (DOM) in sediments and sedimentary rocks, and to assess its thermal maturity. This study was carried out on 33 cutting samples (Middle-Upper Jurassic) from the Ramalhal-1 well to characterize the particulate organic matter and to evaluate its thermal maturity. The samples were submitted to optical petrography analysis (reflected white and blue incident lights) and the mean random reflectance was measured. Microscopic observations revealed a low DOM content, characterized by the predominance of macerals of the inertinite group (including charcoal), followed by solid bitumen. Huminite/vitrinite is usually small in size and quantity. Liptinite macerals were also present, represented by sporinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite and rare bituminite. A type III-IV kerogen was defined for the Ramalhal-1 sequence. Huminite/vitrinite mean random reflectance varied between 0.38% and 0.75%, pointing to an immature-to-mature stage of the organic matter. Multi-populations of solid bitumen occurred in almost all the samples, filling voids and fractures in the inorganic materials (mainly carbonates). The bitumen populations were quite heterogeneous, concerning both the optical characteristics and distribution, displaying different thermal maturities. No relationship between vitrinite and bitumen reflectance was established, indicating that these bitumens were not generated in situ. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Organic Matter in Sedimentary Systems: Insights from Organic Petrology and Organic Geochemistry)
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27 pages, 7868 KiB  
Article
Petrogenesis and Tectonic Setting of Early Cretaceous Intrusive Rocks in the Northern Ulanhot Area, Central and Southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China
by Baoqiang Tai, Wentian Mi, Genhou Wang, Yingjie Li and Xu Kong
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1414; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121414 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2268
Abstract
Abundant Early Cretaceous magmatism is conserved in the central and southern Great Xing’an Range (GXR) and has significant geodynamic implications for the study of the Late Mesozoic tectonic framework of northeast China. In this study, we provide new high-precision U–Pb zircon geochronology, whole-rock [...] Read more.
Abundant Early Cretaceous magmatism is conserved in the central and southern Great Xing’an Range (GXR) and has significant geodynamic implications for the study of the Late Mesozoic tectonic framework of northeast China. In this study, we provide new high-precision U–Pb zircon geochronology, whole-rock geochemistry, and zircon Hf isotopic data for representative intrusive rocks from the northern part of the Ulanhot area to illustrate the petrogenesis types and magma source of these rocks and evaluate the tectonic setting of the central-southern GXR. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) zircon U–Pb dating showed that magmatism in the Ulanhot area (monzonite porphyry: 128.07 ± 0.62 Ma, quartz monzonite porphyry: 127.47 ± 0.36, quartz porphyry: 124.85 ± 0.34, and granite porphyry: 124.15 ± 0.31 Ma) occurred during the Early Cretaceous. Geochemically, monzonite porphyry belongs to the metaluminous and alkaline series rocks and is characterized by high Al2O3 (average 17.74 wt.%) and TiO2 (average 0.88 wt.%) and low Ni (average 4.63 ppm), Cr (average 6.69 ppm), Mg# (average 31.11), Y (average 15.16 ppm), and Yb (average 1.62 ppm) content with enrichment in Ba, K, Pb, Sr, Zr, and Hf and depletion in Ti, Nb, and Ta. The granitic rocks (e.g., quartz monzonite porphyry, quartz porphyry, and granite porphyry) pertain to the category of high-K calc-alkaline rocks and are characterized by high SiO2 content (>66 wt.%) and low MgO (average 0.69 wt.%), Mg# (average 31.49 ppm), Ni (average 2.78 ppm), and Cr (average 8.10 ppm) content, showing an affinity to I-type granite accompanied by Nb, Ta, P, and Ti depletion and negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.57–0.96; average 0.82). The Hf isotopic data suggest that these rocks were the product of the partial melting of juvenile crustal rocks. Notably, fractionation crystallization plays a crucial role in the process of magma emplacement. Combining our study with published ones, we proposed that the Early Cretaceous intrusive rocks in the Ulanhot area were formed in an extensional tectonic background and compactly related to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean plate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological and Tectonic Evolution of the East Asian Collage: Precambrian and Mesozoic)
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19 pages, 7480 KiB  
Article
Controls on Barite Mineralization in a Major Intracontinental Shear Zone: Carboniferous of the Cobequid Highlands, Nova Scotia
by Georgia Pe-Piper and David J. W. Piper
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1413; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121413 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2607
Abstract
Prominent veins of late Carboniferous barite, associated with fluorite and calcite, outcrop close to older granite plutons along an intracontinental shear zone that was active throughout the Carboniferous in southeastern Canada. Some barite is stratigraphically constrained to younger than 315 Ma and final [...] Read more.
Prominent veins of late Carboniferous barite, associated with fluorite and calcite, outcrop close to older granite plutons along an intracontinental shear zone that was active throughout the Carboniferous in southeastern Canada. Some barite is stratigraphically constrained to younger than 315 Ma and final mineralization is constrained by a published Rb–Sr isochron of 300 ± 6 Ma. Barite occurrences in the Carboniferous basins of central Nova Scotia, 50 km to the south, are synchronous with or post-date ankerite-siderite-magnetite-pyrolusite and Pb-Zn mineralization, which was facilitated by fluid interaction with thick evaporites. This study aims to determine controls on the distribution of barite in the shear zone, from field relationships, vein petrography and isotope geochemistry of minerals. The isotope chemistry of shear zone barite is similar to that occurring in Pb-Zn-Mn-Ba mineralization to the south, suggesting a common origin. Veins of barite, associated with fluorite, represent the youngest and regionally coolest phase of a 70 Ma history of Carboniferous mineralized veins along the Minas Fault Zone. Their prominence close to granite plutons reflects brittle deformation of the deeply-rooted granites in a complexly deforming fault zone, but the origin of abundant F remains uncertain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Deposits)
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11 pages, 4302 KiB  
Communication
Nickel Silicide Catalyst from Photovoltaic Waste for the Methanation Reaction
by Jakub Bumba, Vladislav Drinek, Pavel Krystynik, Pavel Dytrych and Olga Solcova
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1412; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121412 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2374
Abstract
A technology designed for recycling photovoltaic (PV) cells at the end of their life was successfully used for the preparation of a nickel silicide catalyst. PV cells were mixed with magnesium scrap to produce magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), with almost total conversion [...] Read more.
A technology designed for recycling photovoltaic (PV) cells at the end of their life was successfully used for the preparation of a nickel silicide catalyst. PV cells were mixed with magnesium scrap to produce magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), with almost total conversion under optimized conditions (400 °C, 5 Pa, 25 min), in a constructed semi-open tubular reactor. Subsequently, magnesium silicide was hydrolyzed by 25% phosphoric acid to produce a mixture of silicon hydrides, which were utilized as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) precursors for the preparation of a nickel silicide catalyst. The activity and stability of the prepared catalyst was repeatedly tested for methanation reactions. It was verified that the nickel silicide catalyst showed an approximately 20% higher activity for the methanation reactions compared to the commonly used nickel catalyst. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status of Electronic Waste Management and Value Recovery Operations—a Step towards the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs))
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13 pages, 4648 KiB  
Article
Distribution of As within Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Fractions of Fluidized-Bed Coal Combustion Ash
by Filip Kovár and Lucie Bartoňová
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1411; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121411 - 13 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2419
Abstract
Separation of coal ash into magnetic and non-magnetic fractions facilitates their utilization when processed separately. Due to desulphurization additives added to coal during the fluidised-bed combustion, non-magnetic fractions often contain elevated CaO levels (while magnetic concentrates are typically rich in Fe2O [...] Read more.
Separation of coal ash into magnetic and non-magnetic fractions facilitates their utilization when processed separately. Due to desulphurization additives added to coal during the fluidised-bed combustion, non-magnetic fractions often contain elevated CaO levels (while magnetic concentrates are typically rich in Fe2O3). Both CaO and Fe2O3 are known for their ability to bind As during the combustion, whose distribution is a crucial parameter in terms of proper utilization of these fractions. Therefore, the study deals with the As partitioning within magnetic and non-magnetic fractions of fluidized-bed coal combustion ashes. Two different (successive) procedures of dry magnetic separation were used to separate each ash into strongly magnetic, less magnetic, and a non-magnetic fraction. Due to their optimal utilization, the concentrations of As and other target elements in these fractions were evaluated and compared. Magnetic concentrates from the first separation step (in vibrofluidized state) contained 60–70% Fe2O3, magnetic concentrates separated manually out of the residues after the first separation contained 26–41% Fe2O3, and the non-magnetic residues contained 2.4–3.5% Fe2O3. Arsenic levels were the highest in the non-magnetic residues and gradually decreased with the increasing Fe2O3 content in the magnetic fractions. The dominant As association in the studied samples was to CaO (r = +0.909) and with SO3 (r = +0.906) whereas its joint occurrence with Fe2O3 was improbable (r = −0.834). Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Critical Metals and Minerals in Coal and Coal Combustion Products)
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24 pages, 5354 KiB  
Article
Paleoproterozoic Pt-Pd Fedorovo-Pansky and Cu-Ni-Cr Monchegorsk Ore Complexes: Age, Metamorphism, and Crustal Contamination According to Sm-Nd Data
by Pavel A. Serov
Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1410; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121410 - 13 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2567
Abstract
This paper continues the Sm-Nd isotope geochronological research carried out at the two largest Paleoproterozoic ore complexes of the northeastern Baltic Shield, i.e., the Cu-Ni-Cr Monchegorsk and the Pt-Pd Fedorovo-Pansky intrusions. These economically significant deposits are examples of layered complexes in the northeastern [...] Read more.
This paper continues the Sm-Nd isotope geochronological research carried out at the two largest Paleoproterozoic ore complexes of the northeastern Baltic Shield, i.e., the Cu-Ni-Cr Monchegorsk and the Pt-Pd Fedorovo-Pansky intrusions. These economically significant deposits are examples of layered complexes in the northeastern part of the Fennoscandian Shield. Understanding the stages of their formation and transformation helps in the reconstruction of the long-term evolution of ore-forming systems. This knowledge is necessary for subsequent critical metallogenic and geodynamic conclusions. We applied the Sm-Nd method of comprehensive age determination to define the main age ranges of intrusion. Syngenetic ore genesis occurred 2.53–2.85 Ga; hydrothermal metasomatic ore formation took place 2.70 Ga; and the injection of additional magma batches occurred 2.44–2.50 Ga. The rock transformation and redeposited ore formation at 2.0–1.9 Ga corresponded to the beginning of the Svecofennian events, widely presented on the Fennoscandian Shield. According to geochronological and Nd-Sr isotope data, rocks of the Monchegorsk and the Fedorovo-Pansky complexes seemed to have an anomalous mantle source in common with Paleoproterozoic layered intrusions of the Fennoscandian Shield (enriched with lithophile elements, εNd values vary from −3.0 to +2.5 and ISr 0.702–0.705). The data obtained comply with the known isotope-geochemical and geochronological characteristics of ore-bearing layered intrusions in the northeastern Baltic Shield. An interaction model of parental melts of the Fennoscandian layered intrusions and crustal matter shows a small level of contamination within the usual range of 5–10%. However, the margins of the Monchetundra massif indicate a much higher level of crustal contamination caused by active interaction of parental magmas and host rock. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ore Genesis and Metamorphism: Geology, Geochemistry, Isotopes and Mineralogy II)
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