Next Article in Journal
Effects of Land Urbanization on Smog Pollution in China: Estimation of Spatial Autoregressive Panel Data Models
Next Article in Special Issue
Temporal Continuities of Grasslands and Forests as Patches of Natural Land in Urban Landscapes: A Case Study of the Tsukuba Science City
Previous Article in Journal
Reframing Native Knowledge, Co-Managing Native Landscapes: Ethnographic Data and Tribal Engagement at Yosemite National Park
Previous Article in Special Issue
Degradation of Coastlines under the Pressure of Urbanization and Tourism: Evidence on the Change of Land Systems from Europe, Asia and Africa
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

A Review of Changes in Mountain Land Use and Ecosystem Services: From Theory to Practice

1
Research Institute of the University of Bucharest, ICUB, Transdisciplinary Research Centre Landscape-Territory-Information Systems, CeLTIS, 050095 Bucharest, Romania
2
Department of Regional Geography and Environment, Faculty of Geography, University of Bucharest, 010041 Bucharest, Romania
3
Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, University of Bucharest, 010041 Bucharest, Romania
4
Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Bucharest, 010014 Bucharest, Romania
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2020, 9(9), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090336
Submission received: 26 July 2020 / Revised: 8 September 2020 / Accepted: 17 September 2020 / Published: 22 September 2020

Abstract

:
Global changes impact the human-environment relationship, and, in particular, they affect the provision of ecosystem services. Mountain ecosystems provide a wide range of such services, but they are highly sensitive and vulnerable to change due to various human pressures and natural processes. We conducted a literature survey that focused on two main issues. The first was the identification of quantitative methods aimed at assessing the impact of land use changes in mountain regions and the related ecosystem services. The second was the analysis of the extent to which the outcomes of these assessments are useful and transferable to stakeholders. We selected papers through a keyword-driven search of the ISI Web of Knowledge and other international databases. The keywords used for the search were mountain land use change and ecosystem service. Quantitative approaches to ecosystem service assessment rely on suitable indicators, therefore land use/land cover can be used as an appropriate proxy. Landscape metrics are a powerful analytical tool; their use can increase the accuracy of assessments and facilitate the mitigation of specific phenomena, such as fragmentation or the reduction of core habitat areas. Mapping is essential: it is the basis for spatial analyzes and eases the interactions between stakeholders. Land use/land cover change is a temporal process, so both past and future approaches are meaningful. It is necessary to enhance information transfer from theory to practice. Increasing stakeholder awareness can lead to suitable management solutions, and, reciprocally, stakeholder feedback can help improve current assessment methodologies and contribute to developing new tools that are suitable for specific problems.

1. Introduction

Mountain ecosystems offer a variety of important goods and services for humans. At the same time, there is a wide consensus that they are highly susceptible to severe impacts on biodiversity and human well-being under the influence of climate and land use changes [1,2,3,4]. The general scientific opinion is that accelerated global climate change is occurring, and it will have clear effects on the future evolution of mountain agro-ecosystems [5,6,7,8,9]. Mountain ecosystem services and the well-being of people living in these areas are particularly vulnerable to climate change in view of water availability and natural hazards associated with extreme weather events, slope instability and changes in the vegetation structure [10,11]. In addition, Bebi et al. [12] explore the critical linkages between future climate and land use changes and the functioning of mountain ecosystems through the consideration of snow avalanche disturbances.
Furthermore, Mori et al. [13] argue that the response of ecosystem services to climate change is complex; in this view, any change in one or more ecosystem components can affect and alter other ecosystem properties and processes in a significant way. The authors further posit that many changes can occur in an ecosystem, and they provide examples of such changes from the scientific literature: the development of new plant communities as well as changes in phenology, plant–animal interactions, food-webs, vegetation carbon balance and natural disturbance regimes. Many of these consequences have been the unintended result of insufficiently planned management actions [14].
For Schroth et al. [15], the incorporation of expert knowledge can be useful in climate impact assessments by providing perspectives regarding human behavior in the context of environmental change, such as the importance of non-climatic factors in decision making or the synergistic interactions between social change and climate impacts. Such social changes include the marginalization of economic activities, the migration of economically active segments of society and local population ageing. Philpott et al. [16] also call for a greater understanding of the repercussions that climate change has on food and timber provisioning services for the livelihoods of mountain communities. Huber et al. [17] predict that the expected anthropogenic climate change will exacerbate these issues by changing disturbance regimes, intensifying drought conditions and negatively affecting the development of at least some ecosystems in mountain regions.
In terms of key ecosystem services provided by mountain ecosystems, it is widely recognized that mountain ecosystems provide an array of services, such as wood [18] and food production [6,10,19,20], that support the livelihoods of upland farming communities, in addition to the well-being of communities in the surrounding lowlands [15,21]. Services benefiting lowlands include long-term carbon sequestration in woody biomass and forest soils [20,22,23,24], which Harrison et al. [10] rank as being of key importance for mountain ecosystems. Furthermore, mountain forests play a major role in lowland communities through water-regulating services [25]. Because mountain ecosystems provide goods and services to people who live in mountain regions [1] and the surrounding lowlands [26], it is important to better understand how the concept of ecosystem services can influence spatial decision-making processes [27]. For example, agriculture provides various ecosystem services in mountainous areas including nutrient cycling, habitat provisioning, aesthetics and cultural services [28,29], but mountain farming can also be a threat to the provision of other ecosystem services, through the use of chemical fertilizers to increase production.
In recent decades, mountain ecosystems have become more and more vulnerable to anthropogenic pressure, especially that resulting from change (land use/land cover change, climate change and changes in traditional land use practices). Increasingly, such changes in land use are affecting key ecosystem services. For example, the abandonment of traditional pasture management in the Carpathian Mountains impacts carbon sequestration [30]. Abandonment of traditionally managed pastureland is directly linked to declining ecosystem services in mountain areas [31]. In the mountainous areas of Spain, nature-based tourism services are affected by the development of large tourism infrastructure and inappropriate tourist behavior [32]. Environmental issues, such as forest fires that are caused by depopulation of mountain areas, call for mapping land use and land cover changes, and building evidence for improved land management solutions [9].
According to Huber et al. [17], climate change, ecosystems and their dynamics, socio-economics and politics are all part of an interconnected system with multiple feedbacks. When investigating the impacts of climate and land-use change on the provision of ecosystem goods and services in mountain regions, a complex system approach is needed to accurately analyze both human and environmental dynamics over a range of spatial and temporal scales. Therefore, only by integrating multi-disciplinary research with dedicated disciplinary research into individual processes and mechanisms can these comprehensive systems be understood to ultimately address interlinked environmental and social problems [17].
Land use/land cover change and ecosystem services are two concepts that appeared and evolved in different ways. The first was considered to be a common driver of landscape dynamics [33,34], whereas the second originated to capture the relationship between ecosystem functions and their economic value [35,36,37,38,39,40]. However, these two concepts have only recently been considered as a joint approach for assessing the impacts and consequences of land use/land cover changes on ecosystem services [41], pointing to the need to discuss more cross-cutting perspectives [27,35,42,43,44,45,46,47].
Ecosystem services represent the basic precondition for human existence and well-being [1,36,37]. Literature provides various definitions and classifications of ecosystem services [36,37,48,49,50,51,52,53,54], but the definitions are not fully compatible [55,56], which might be misleading to the people applying them in landscape planning and management [57,58]. The most widely used classification of ecosystem services was the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [38], which identified four major types of ecosystem services: (i) supporting / habitat services, (ii) provisioning services, (iii) regulating services, and (iv) cultural services. The revision done by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity [39] aimed to synthesize the work in this field and prevent double counting in ecosystem services audits. It revised the Millennium Assessment definition by removing the ‘supporting services’ and dividing them into ‘habitat services’ on the one hand and ‘ecosystem functions’ on the other; the latter are defined as a subset of the interactions between ecosystem structure and processes that underpin the capacity of an ecosystem to provide goods and services’ [39]. A further step towards a common classification of ecosystem services [59] has been undertaken by the European Environment Agency (EEA) through the development of the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES), which proposes a section–division–group–class–class type hierarchical structure [60].
In addition to the concept of ecosystem functions, the related and comp(l)eting concepts of landscape services and landscape functions move the discussion forward to a more holistic view, in which human society is connected with the natural structures and processes of the landscape [61]. When landscape functions are valued by people, they provide landscape services, and this concept was proposed to better integrate a broad range of services that relate to the landscape’s living and inanimate natural entities and result from the interaction of humans with natural landscapes [62,63,64,65]. However, this concept was not designed to replace or overlap with the concept of ecosystem services; it adds to the field as it predominantly relies on the anthropocentric character of the landscape and highlights those services that are derived from the spatial relationships among the landscape elements or the interaction between cultural and natural resources. The concept of landscape services is considered to be more comprehensive, as it integrates different disciplines from both the natural and social sciences and encourages participatory approaches and sustainable landscape planning [63].
The introduction sections of some papers present literature surveys from a standpoint similar to the present study, offering various perspectives of and relationships among ecosystem services. Kienast et al. [66] investigate the relationships between ecosystem services and their capacities (stocks - landscape function) to provide goods and services (flows). Burkhard et al. [67] define the concepts of the supply of ecosystem services, the demand for ecosystem services and the ecosystem service footprint, while Bastian [55] investigates the links between biodiversity and ecosystem services. Albert et al. [57] discuss the enhanced relevance of ecosystem services, and Bürgi et al. [35] link ecosystem services with landscape history, while Tratalos et al. [68] point out the need to measure cultural ecosystem services. Finally, Martín–López et al. [69] argue the need for interdisciplinary perspectives on the interconnections between socio-economic and ecological systems, including for studying ecosystem services.
In this context, a natural question can be raised: who are the beneficiaries? Qui prodest? Who needs to understand these changes in mountain land use and ecosystem services? The answer lies in the concept itself: ‘ecosystem services form a useful link between the functioning of ecosystems and their role for society’ [70]. But how do people understand and manage these services and benefits? Despite the incorporation of ecosystem services into landscape planning and decision making, the relevant results are still in their very beginnings [57,71]. Understanding ecosystem services and the implications of changes for planning and decision making could contribute to the development of more appropriate management strategies. Furthermore, the concept could become an accepted tool for natural resource management [66].
There are numerous reviews about ecosystem services that concern definitions, classifications, mapping, indicators, assessment, economic value, etc. Nichols et al. [72] provide a quantitative review of the importance of certain species in the maintenance of ecosystem services with a focus on the issue of habitat fragmentation and the response of insect communities. Harrison et al. [10] survey the structure and trends of ecosystem services across Europe through a literature review and scientific expert knowledge, and Hermann et al. [56] discuss the state of the art of ecosystem service assessment in landscape research. Seppelt et al. [73] perform a quantitative review of ecosystem service studies while Seppelt et al. [74] take a deeper look at ecosystem services assessments. Mountain ecosystem services are the topic of the paper by Grêt-Regamey et al. [1], while Mori et al. [13] review and discuss the literature about ecosystem processes, mitigation and adaptation strategies to identify the limitations of ecosystem management approaches, the relevant issues and the state of knowledge related to forests. Iverson et al. [75] discuss the relevance of landscape ecology and ecosystem services, and Wolff et al. [76] define and identify four ‘demand types’ and discuss mapping the demand for ecosystem services. Recent studies [69,77] focus on the uptake of the concept of ecosystem services into policymaking and on the interdisciplinary nature of the reviewed studies.
Against this introductory background, our review is focused on two major research questions:
(i)
What quantitative methods have been developed for linking land use change in mountain regions with ecosystem services?
To answer this question, Section 3 of the paper outlines the approaches to studying land use changes in mountain ecosystems. As shown in Table 1, land use and land cover data are used as input for the assessment of ecosystem services, mapping potential conflicts among ecosystem services and to discuss scenarios for the provision of ecosystem services under different land use planning strategies. Complex patterns of land use changes [78] stand out as one of the main pressures on ecosystem services, such as the effects of deforestation on greenhouse gas emissions, and could have permanent effects on ecosystems and the supply of ecosystem services, like in the case of insufficiently planned development [79].
(ii)
To what extent is linking land use change in mountain regions with ecosystem services useful to stakeholders?
In Section 4 of the paper, we present an overview of embedding the link between human land use activity and its impact on ecosystem services from the perspective of planning and policymaking. As illustrated in Table 2, the challenge is to align different methods for bridging land use and ecosystem services with the needs and levels of various stakeholders and governance levels. Also, the methods usually applied in policy design require a multi-level stakeholder engagement approach, to ensure an open, collaborative and coherent decision-making process and to balance interests in certain types of land use/ land cover and ecosystem services.
In this view, it is of utmost importance to provide high quality and in-depth information on competing land uses and demand for ecosystem services, in terms of sectoral policies addressing environmental issues, conservation, forestry, agriculture and rural development, as well as in cross-sectoral processes like regional development and spatial planning.
The review process focused on research articles regarding land use and ecosystem services in mountain areas across the globe, trying to understand the scientific debate about the outcomes of assessment methods and their uptake in planning and policymaking practices. Therefore, the results of our systematic review reflect the level of linking human land uses and ecosystems services in the scientific literature, as well as the extent of orienting research activities towards practical policymaking requirements. The conclusions are influenced by the selection of research articles, which is limited to the international databases, thus some important national and regional perspectives related to mountain land uses and ecosystem services are lacking in this paper. In this view, there is a need for more nuanced information on the integration of ecosystem services assessments into decision-making across different levels of governance in future qualitative thematic analyses.

2. Methods

We used mountain land use change and ecosystem service as a literature search term. A search of the ISI Web of Knowledge and other databases, such as Science Direct and Springer. A total of 151 papers were selected as the basis for further analyses. We analyzed the papers from two perspectives: (i) year of appearance to identify trends over time, and (ii) the category of the journal in which the paper was published, according to the Web of Science classification.
The papers were classified using two criteria. The first relates to the category/categories of ecosystem services addressed, and the second refers to the type of analysis performed in the paper. Following a quick survey of the selected papers, we classified them into five categories: (i) theoretical/conceptual, (ii) spatial analysis, (iii) social analysis, (iv) mixed methods, and (v) review. Chronologically, the analyzed papers present general research on ecosystem services (Figure 1), and most were published in 2017 (15%) and 2019 (12%). The research papers that were focused on specific types of ecosystem services were mostly published in the period 2011–2015 (71%). Research on the four major categories of ecosystem services was mainly published in 2014 and 2015 (47%).
Firstly, the analyzed papers present predominantly spatial analysis and a mixed-method approach to ecosystem services followed by theoretical/conceptual analysis, social analysis and a literature review. Mixed method approaches and spatial analysis papers mostly appeared in 2012–2015 (54% and 58%, respectively) (Figure 2). Most of the papers presenting a theoretical/conceptual approach were published in 2013–2014 (38%), and the papers employing social analyses were largely published in 2014–2015 (40%). Those studies that focus on literature review were mostly published in 2011–2013 (53%).
The journals focused on subjects classified as belonging to ecology and the environmental sciences contain the greatest number of papers that present research on specific types of ecosystem services, the four major categories of ecosystem services and ecosystem services in general (69%).
Together, the journals classified as focused on subjects related to ecology, the environmental sciences and environmental studies contain the most types of ecosystem service analyses.

3. Approaches to Studying Land Use Changes in Mountain Ecosystems

Land use/land cover indicators are usually used as a proxy for ecosystem service assessment. In this view, the assessment of ecosystem services includes an important quantitative component that depends on suitable indicators. To accurately and comprehensively assess the various facets of ecosystem supply, a whole set of indicators has been assigned to the major classes of ecosystem services over time [38,39,60]. Land use/land cover represents an appropriate proxy that can be used to estimate some of these indicators [80]. Maes et al. [44] analyze spatial patterns of biodiversity and indicators of biodiversity at the scale of Europe and demonstrate that land use/land cover explains a significant portion of the spatial variation in ecosystem service supply. Kandziora et al. [81] and Zulian et al. [82] present a comprehensive list of proposed indicators for regulating, provision and cultural services as well as other components of human well-being, and they explore the interrelationships between these indicators. Helfenstein and Kienast [83] use the framework outlined in the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services [60] to systematically evaluate the state of and predict the trends in selected ecosystem services based on their associations with land use categories.
To outline ecosystem service dynamics over time, it is appealing for researchers to incorporate the temporal scale into the already-established connection between land use/land cover and indicators of ecosystem services. To detect trends in the supply of ecosystem services over time, Lautenbach et al. [84] examine four indicators related to water quality regulation, food production, outdoor recreation and pollination. Balthazar et al. [80] estimate the impacts of forest cover change on ecosystem services using landscape capacities as a proxy, while landscape history is linked to environmental changes and analyzed from the perspective of its effects on ecosystem services by Grunewald and Bastian [85] and Bastian et al. [86], who further emphasize the need for sustainable landscape development. Finally, a significant correlation between the drivers of landscape change (e.g., agricultural policy) and ecosystem service indicators is demonstrated by Guerra et al. [87].
Another quantitative method that helps link land use change in mountain regions with landscape patterns and the supply of ecosystem services consists in the use of landscape metrics. Landscape metrics have become a standard tool for transforming the assessment of spatial characteristics into ecologically meaningful information. From this perspective, they may represent an appropriate tool for connecting land use changes to ecosystem services. The changes in land cover or land use are related to specific patterns, such as fragmentation or the reduction of core habitat areas, but changes in landscape patterns also directly or indirectly impact landscape functions, such as habitat, regulation or information functions [88]. Frank et al. [89] propose a conceptual framework that explicitly links several landscape metrics to the assessment of ecosystem services and test this approach on afforestation scenarios. Syrbe and Walz [90] consider a set of landscape metrics and detail how they can be useful for evaluating ecosystem services. Grêt–Regamey et al. [91] proposed an integrative approach and discussed the impact of marginal land use changes on ecosystem services by accounting for changes in landscape patterns [78].
Spatial analysis is a powerful tool for the transfer of information into decision-making and planning processes. The emergence of the spatial analysis of ecosystem services strongly contributed to the linking of land use with ecosystem services because it produces maps that display data related to land use/land cover change [56]. Mapping is used for extracting information related to land use to understand ecosystem services. To integrate ecosystem services into planning and decision making as well as different existing programs, researchers have evaluated various model areas that produce ecosystem services using spatial analyses.
Great attention has been drawn to developing methods and indicators as well as to mapping approaches that can help quantify ecosystem services, their trade-offs or bundles [35,43,84,89,90,92,93,94,95,96,97]. For example, Haines–Young et al. (2012) study the relationships between land use/land cover and ecosystem services and the impacts of different drivers of change through the development of different scenarios. The use of remote sensing and GIS to map land use/land cover change is a common approach in many other studies [19,98,99,100,101]; but the process of mapping and quantifying land use and ecosystem functions could also be based on stakeholder [6], community [102] or tourists surveys [103].
Fürst et al. [104] emphasize the role of the spatial dimension of management and governance, pointing out that stakeholders are seeking spatial solutions because they are more interested in knowing “where” to implement planning than “why”. Generating maps of ecosystem services is useful for obtaining information about land use conversion and for understanding the value and flow of benefits [105]. The mapping of ecosystem service supply, demand and budgets [67,106] as well as mapping demands [76] can be integrated into the planning and management workflow at different stages: vulnerability assessments [70], identifying conservation priorities [105], management decision making [27], and developing benefit scenarios that provide returns to landowners [46].
Landscape history and scenario development highlight how land use decision altered the provision of ecosystem services and future possible situations that are determined by different planning strategies. Land use change can be viewed from a temporal perspective, so two approaches are possible: looking backward or forward, that is, in the past or in the future. Scientists have argued that both directions on the temporal scale are useful in the context of ecosystem service assessment; historical analyses can improve our understanding of ecosystem service dynamics [35] while modeling scenarios support the consideration of global changes through the joint perspectives of socioeconomics and climate [42].
The link between the two concepts is change, which acts as a key driver. Thus, understanding the influence of land use change on ecosystem services leads to understanding the dynamics of and the changes in ecosystem services. Currently, these dynamics have mainly been observed by analyzing scenarios [42,45,91] or linking ecosystem services with landscape history [35,84,107]. Another approach is to study the sustainability of ecosystem services in changing landscapes [107,108]. Analyzes of land use changes and their influence on ecosystem services have highlighted both positive and negative impacts on the supply of ecosystem services. For example, MEA [38], Nelson et al. [45] and Haines-Young et al. [43] all emphasize the possible loss of the benefits that ecosystems provide, but other studies emphasize the benefits of land use change, e.g., forestation [109].
Understanding how landscapes and ecosystem services change over time can contribute to better predictions of the future [35,107]. Lautenbach et al. [84] detect trends over 50 years by using indicators based on proxies, and a basic hypothesis tested in the paper is that land use configuration plays an important role. Balthazar et al. [80] assess the impact of forest cover change on ecosystems and test the feasibility of extending analyzes over longer periods. Bürgi et al. [35] develop a framework for linking ecosystem services with landscape history, starting from the premise that ecosystem services are directly impacted by temporal landscape dynamics and emphasizing the need to assess the historical provisioning of ecosystem services. As far as projecting the responses of mountain ecosystems to climate change, the results of numerous studies are strongly scenario-dependent [19,110]; e.g., Miller et al. [111] use long historical and contemporary time-series of climatological variables with fire occurrence and land use change data.
Scenarios support the understanding of potential conflicts between competing land uses, as well as associated trade-offs [112]. Many studies examine the potential for scenario analysis [7,19,20,110,113]. For example, Lundström et al. [19] present a methodological approach to the ALPSCAPE model based on an explicit scenario, and Nelson et al. [45] present map changes in ecosystem services by applying the InVEST spatial modeling tool to stakeholder-defined scenarios. A few years later, Petz et al. [114] reference different land management scenarios and use the InVEST tool to quantify and map water yield using vegetation, hydrological and sediment retention data. Briner et al. [115] develop an economic land allocation model, ALUAM, aimed at simulating competition and trade-off scenarios, and based on this model, Briner et al. [42] present a modeling framework that allows for the investigation of the trade-offs between ecosystem services by considering a spatial scale that is relevant for decision making. Hirschi et al. [28] extend the ALUAM model by considering the land-use dynamics triggered by market and policy changes, and Grêt–Regamey et al. [27] use a GIS-based Bayesian network that integrates local expert knowledge to map forest ecosystem services values to develop a trend scenario for 2050. Grêt–Regamey et al. [91] emphasize the role of marginal land use changes and their impact on ecosystem services by accounting for changes in landscape patterns, such as fragmentation. Many other studies also examine the potential for scenario analysis [7,19,20,110,113].

4. From Theory to Practice

The purpose of this section is to highlight the applicability of assessing land uses and their interaction with ecosystem services in various governance practices. A key point in this regard is the existence of a multi-level stakeholder engagement approach to understanding cases of competing land uses and demands for ecosystem services.
The assessment of ecosystem services, as performed by researchers, becomes more conclusive when placed in a broader context, i.e., in direct relationship to management and planning. Top-down and bottom-up approaches complement each other, and because ecosystem services are closely connected to social systems, the commitment of decision-makers to the use of the ecosystem service concept must be based on research [116]. This approach is supported by policymakers, such as MEA and TEEB, which have incorporated the ecosystem concept into political considerations [117]. Several international agreements, such as the Aichi Targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the EU’s Biodiversity Strategy, address ecosystem services [57]. Recently, Diehl et al. [117] discuss the opportunity for integrating ecosystem services into impact assessment studies, but there is also an increasing need to incorporate stakeholder perspectives when addressing issues related to ecosystem service assessments. Albert et al. [118] describe various approaches to integrate planners, their interests and perspectives and the impact of the ecosystem service concept into planning. There are various stages at which the interaction between scientists, local communities, planning experts and decision-makers at national and subnational levels can occur on the linkages between human land use activities, and they have different implications for ecosystem services (Figure 3).
Using maps, Kienast et al. [66] investigate the characteristics of the land and its capacity to provide ecosystem services and discuss the supply and demand of ecosystem services. Five experts were directly involved in establishing the binary links between land characteristics and landscape functions. Moreno et al. [32] model mental maps, which help to improve knowledge, understand the various points of view of the diverse stakeholders and consider their proposals to solve specific problems in protected areas [119].
Wolff et al. [76] and Aguilar–Gomez et al. [9] present the advantages of participatory approaches. They note that stakeholder involvement can be useful, for instance, in identifying what ecosystem services exist and can be valued on a map. A focus when using participatory approaches to assess mountain ecosystem services is on cultural ecosystem services [29] due to their less quantifiable nature. Furthermore, Grêt–Regamey et al. [27] prove that including local knowledge in ecosystem service assessments and modeling could contribute to mutual learning between stakeholders but also be very useful for reducing uncertainties related to avalanche occurrence, timber production, and carbon sequestration. Frank et al. [120] analyze how the decline of a regulating service impacts other ecosystem services. Several scenarios were developed and discussed in workshops by scientists and regional planners.
Turning to the question whether ecosystem service assessments can contribute to the planning and decision-making process by meeting the requirements and interests of targeted stakeholders, it is known that assessing ecosystem services can underpin planning and decision making at different stages, and recent studies cover an entire gradient of perspectives from informing, assisting and providing support to confirming and validating planning and policy measures. Thus, such assessments can inform land use planning [100,121,122] or provide input into management decisions in high-risk mountain areas [16,123]. The influences of historical/temporal [123,124] and spatial dynamics [14,125] on the current provision of multiple ecosystem services can contribute to the understanding of how service delivery will be altered under land use/land cover change [126]. Hirschi et al. [28] use ex-ante policy assessment models of ecosystem goods and services to indicate which policy measures will have strong support in the political process and show that assessments of ecosystem services could assist planners and decision-makers.
Understanding the links between conservation demands and management practices and understanding the fact that multifunctional landscapes increase the benefits for stakeholders considering their multiple demanded ecosystem services [127] can increase awareness of the value of the benefits that ecosystems provide [128]. Ecosystem service assessments provide knowledge to aid the pursuit of suitable policies for the management of ecosystem services [10,114,129]; a key challenge it is the management of multiple ecosystem services across landscapes [130]. Linking the social values of ecosystem services to ecological data can guide decision making for the management of protected areas [119,131]. The mapping of ecosystem services can support management decisions [27,132], and an overall insight into the value of ecosystem services can support sound conservation policy [72,116] and proper forest management decisions [17,111]. Appropriate models can predict the effects of policy decisions on future land uses [133], and assessing the services provided by ecosystems can also confirm planning decisions, e.g., choosing between abandoning or intensifying a specific land use [110] by considering the relevant opportunities [6]. Furthermore, the assessment of ecosystem services could validate the consistency of policy goals, which is why they must be integrated into planning processes. Last but not least, the ecosystem service approach may be used to add value to traditional conservation approaches [134].
To meet the expectations of planners and decision-makers, the interdisciplinary scientific achievements regarding ecosystem services must be transferred into the decision-making process [135]. The knowledge-transfer process itself requires a transdisciplinary perspective, thus various approaches to achieving this aim have been proposed and explored in the literature. Effective models have been developed to enhance the link between the perspectives of researchers and planners; for example, the PRESET model indicates how to incorporate the ecosystem services concept into planning [136]. The authors highlight the importance of integrating both the available ecosystem services and the ecosystem services that are utilized in the model, as both are very important for planning and enhancing the provision of ecosystem services.
The participatory identification of ecosystem services has become a well-established tool through several studies that investigate the importance of local system knowledge [19] in the pursuit of landscape management strategies [100] or for understanding how land use might evolve based on current needs and decisions [110]. Swetnam et al. [20] create a participatory scenario-building exercise to develop quantitative maps that could assist decision-makers better than simple statistical reports. Moreno et al. [32] use a participatory technique to reveal the complexity of ecosystem services and integrate the ecosystem services framework into ecosystem-based management.
The literature on integrating the ecosystem service concept or instruments into planning indicates a bias between theory and its actual uptake into governance decisions or policymaking. However, there are a few exceptions that prove that the ecosystem service concept is moving towards integration into public policies and strategies and that policy impact assessment procedures are suitable for transferring the scientific concept of ecosystem services into policymaking. Helming et al. [137] link 3 separate frameworks, i.e., (i) the concept of ecosystem services, (ii) the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) system, and (iii) the steps of the IA (impact assessment) process, to build a single comprehensive framework for the application of the ecosystem services concept to the policy impact assessment process.
Organizations that hold an intermediate position at the interface between science and the practice of ecosystem services assessment are crucial for ‘communicating information across scales and policy areas for the design and implementation of responses to the degradation of ecosystem services’ [138]. McNeely [139] notes that all levels of governance (from the supranational to the local) play a role in enhancing the ecosystem services provided by protected areas and conclude that bioregionalism constitutes the best approach for the designation and management of protected areas. Monzón et al. [140] support the idea that ecosystem services should be at the core of protected area management structures, but governance schemes should support making good use of ecosystem services [141]. These schemes should follow a multi-level governance arrangement based on the vertical coordination between different European, national and subnational institutions to actively involve all these levels in policymaking [142].
Walz et al. [7] state that the results of research into the participatory ecosystem services mapping ended in the integration of the project team into a committee for the design of a regional development concept. Padilla et al. [24] acknowledge the importance of knowing the quantity and location of services to inform management decisions and policymaking at regional levels. Pfund et al. [100] argue that the mechanisms for developing reward schemes could be integrated into development strategies, and Lopa et al. [23] review the Tanzanian CARE/WWF pilot project of an operational PES scheme in the Uluguru Mountains. PES approaches that have been less developed in ecosystem service research targeting mountain areas, leaving a knowledge gap that is partially filled by country-wide studies focusing on the payment schemes for forest and water ecosystem services [143].
Public instruments (e.g., payments and subsidies) represent a much more common conservation approach than private, market-oriented instruments (e.g., sponsoring and donations) [144]. Lambin et al. [145] argue that, under favourable institutional and governance contexts, well-designed public-private instruments can be effective in leveraging the benefits of ecosystem services.
The practical application of the ecosystem service concept is seen in compensation payments for farmers [5,15,23,146,147,148], which could result in the generation of more ecosystem services. This tool is targeted at the farm level and directly included in the decision-making process [5,149].
Sikor et al. [150] note that payments for ecosystem services (PES) typically require the involvement of national governments due to their territorial authority, whether the interventions take the form of large-scale programs or small-scale projects. However, these mechanisms can be inefficient, e.g., in the case of urban sprawl [151] or if lacking a targeted and practical approach [152]. Caro–Borrero et al. [153] offer important insights into improvements in PES to fulfil their scope, such as dedicating more funds for additional social training on the roles of PES, in the context of the urban-rural fringe in Mexico. In terms of the private sector, instruments like the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) successfully integrate the concept of ecosystem services into business decision-making and strategic planning [135].
Other implementation measures, such as reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation and enhancing carbon sinks (REDD), could act as mechanisms for developing reward schemes [100,154]. From this perspective, Swetnam et al. [20] argue that such mechanisms would depend on the uptake of a participatory land use planning process, the existence of payments for environmental services, and the equitable governance of rural landscapes. Thus, Hein and van der Meer [155], as cited by Mori et al. [13], emphasize the fact that REDD has the advantage of demonstrating the benefits to local stakeholders of preserving long-term ecosystem functioning, while Tegegne et al. [156] assert that institutional and policy factors are the most important factors for successfully implementing the REDD approach.

5. Conclusions

Modeling and assessing the impact [157] of land use change on ecosystem services triggered the development of cutting edge methodological approaches and yielded outcomes that are useful for management and decision making [27,45,77]. New problems and challenges are raised by the studies that cover a wide range of topics from pure theory to its applications. The classifications and the definitions of ecosystem services have varied over time [35]. However, to optimize information transfer for decision making, ecosystem services must be clearly defined [116], thus flexible and uncomplicated language must be applied constructively. This can help strengthen research-policymaking-stakeholder connections over the meaning and applicability of ecosystem services [158], making use of consistent concepts and instruments to inform coherent policies and enable the engagement and support of key stakeholders.
Developing new methodological approaches and tools for assessing ecosystem services [57], followed by their implementation and evaluation in practice [135,159] remain hot topics, considering the importance of transferring knowledge of ecosystem services into policy design and implementation, based on spatially explicit quantitative information. These methods and tools may offer important information to direct the management and preservation of mountain ecosystem services on the list of planning priorities.
Even though there are several tools that have been developed within the ecosystem service method, they are not integrated enough in the socio-political landscape [160]. Taking into account the articles analyzed in this paper, there is a mismatch between the place where ecosystem services are generated, in this case in mountain areas, and the location of the ultimate beneficiaries of these services. For instance, the sequestration of carbon by montane forests has a trans-boundary, even global scale impact, yet the land use change and ecosystem services assessment tools developed so far have not succeeded in translating international goals into local governance decisions.
However, recent initiatives like the European Green Deal and the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2030 call for sound monitoring and assessment in the field of ecosystem services, keeping the issue high on the political agenda. More straightforward lines of actions are needed for integrating ecosystem services in national and subnational governance processes. Also, the UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development targets to integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, and development processes. As such, there is a need to better integrate the use of tools that help analyze land use change impact on the supply-side of ecosystem services and the effects on human well-being into the policy design process.
The vulnerability of mountain ecosystem services remains crucial to future investigations. In addition to analyzing which services are most vulnerable to change [35], a better understanding of the deep links between the vulnerability of ecosystem services, landscape change and their drivers is needed [107]. Particular attention should be paid to the role of disturbances in different scenarios [107]. Landscape metrics remain a suitable approach for the analysis of the services provided by landscapes and ecosystems [161]. In this sense, landscape metrics could be adequate indicators to evaluate qualitative changes in landscape services for spatial planning and could provide more accuracy to scenario-based ecosystem services assessments [89]. We consider that in the view of drivers of change that affect ecosystems and ecosystem services, it is essential to apply indicator-based quantitative assessments, landscape metrics and mapping of land use/land cover change to build evidence for spatial planning and policymaking. Future ecosystem services assessments could be easier integrated into planning and policymaking through more coherent classifications, and models that predict the supply of ecosystem services under land use and climate change scenarios.
The ongoing socio-economic transformations of mountain ecosystems negatively impact important ecosystem services [1]. Under such conditions, these services interact and trigger conflicts that have to be carefully explored to contribute to policy recommendations to mitigate the associated negative effects. Therefore, there is a need to increase awareness of existing and potential conflicts among ecosystem services because they are an important part of a continuously changing landscape. Scholars have already highlighted conflicts related to the uncontrolled expansion of tourism, water regulation services and water provisioning services [32]. Solving or mitigating conflicts can be achieved at regional or local levels by suitably adapting the decision-making process [12]. Accurate assessments of ecosystem services can be performed when working at the local scale, but many drivers of change, such as climate change, occur at a global scale [27,66]. Thus, developing additional approaches to link scales can enhance our knowledge of the impact of change on mountain ecosystems.
Conceptual and applied linkages between human land uses, ecosystem services and society could be better embedded in research-policymaking interactions, especially considering the demand for ecosystem services and the fact that the beneficiaries of these services may be located in distant regions from the place where they are generated. Reciprocal interactions with stakeholders need to be intensified. For instance, practical guidelines and illustrative case studies that explain the application of the ecosystem service concept to planning would be welcome [8,118]. Moreover, it is a crucial and delicate matter to ‘negotiate’ the differences between the perspectives of the scholars and stakeholders. Altogether, placing ecosystem services in a broader context and regarding them as components of a complex decision-making system [162] could bring new insights and lead to future developments.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.P.-S. and C.A.H.; methodology, I.P.-S., C.A.H. and M.-S.S.; formal analysis, I.P.-S., C.A.H., A.N., A.H.-S., S.R.G. and A.-A.G.; resources and data curation, A.N., A.H.-S, I.P.-S. and C.A.H.; writing—original draft preparation, I.P.-S., C.A.H., M.-S.S., A.N., A.H.S., S.R.G.; writing—review and editing, A.H.-S., C.A.H., A.N., S.R.G., A.-A.G. and I.P.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was partially funded by the Swiss Enlargement Contribution in the framework of the Romanian-Swiss Research Programme, project code: IZERZO 142168/1 and 22 RO-CH/RSRP.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Samuel Cushman for his valuable suggestions and overall support. We also thank the reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Grêt–Regamey, A.; Brunner, S.H.; Kienast, F. Mountain Ecosystem Services: Who Cares? Mt. Res. Dev. 2012, 32, S23–S34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Brunner, S.H.; Grêt-Regamey, A. Policy strategies to foster the resilience of mountain social-ecological systems under uncertain global change. Environ. Sci. Policy 2016, 66, 129–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Albert, C.H.; Thuiller, W.; Lavorel, S.; Davies, I.D.; Garbolino, E. Land-use change and subalpine tree dynamics: Colonization ofLarix deciduain French subalpine grasslands. J. Appl. Ecol. 2008, 45, 659–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Bugmann, H.; Gurung, A.B.; Ewert, F.; Haeberli, W.; Guisan, A.; Fagre, D.B.; Kääb, A.; Participants, G. Modeling the Biophysical Impacts of Global Change in Mountain Biosphere Reserves. Mt. Res. Dev. 2007, 27, 66–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Bernués, A.; Ruiz, R.; Olaizola, A.; Villalba, D.; Casasús, I.; Tolosana, A.O. Sustainability of pasture-based livestock farming systems in the European Mediterranean context: Synergies and trade-offs. Livest. Sci. 2011, 139, 44–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Verburg, P.H.; Van De Steeg, J.; Veldkamp, A.; Willemen, L.; Veldkamp, A. From land cover change to land function dynamics: A major challenge to improve land characterization. J. Environ. Manag. 2009, 90, 1327–1335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Walz, A.; Lardelli, C.; Behrendt, H.; Grêt-Regamey, A.; Lundström, C.; Kytzia, S.; Bebi, P. Participatory scenario analysis for integrated regional modelling. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2007, 81, 114–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Dhakal, B.; Khadka, M.; Gautam, M. Impacts of payment for ecosystem services of mountain agricultural landscapes on farming women in Nepal. GeoJournal 2020, 1–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Aguilar–Gómez, C.R.; Maass, S.F.; Reyes, T.T.A. Differentiated payments for environmental services schemes: Amethodology proposal. J. Mt. Sci. 2018, 15, 1693–1710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Harrison, P.A.; Vandewalle, M.; Sykes, M.T.; Berry, P.M.; Bugter, R.; de Bello, F.; Feld, C.K.; Grandin, U.; Harrington, R.; Haslett, J.R.; et al. Identifying and prioritising services in European terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. Biodivers. Conserv. 2010, 19, 2791–2821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Palomo, I. Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem Services in High Mountain Areas: A Literature Review. Mt. Res. Dev. 2017, 37, 179–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Bebi, P.; Kulakowski, D.; Rixen, C. Snow avalanche disturbances in forest ecosystems—State of research and implications for management. For. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 257, 1883–1892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Mori, A.S.; Spies, T.A.; Sudmeier-Rieux, K.; Andrade, A. Reframing ecosystem management in the era of climate change: Issues and knowledge from forests. Boil. Conserv. 2013, 165, 115–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Jiang, M.; Bullock, J.M.; Hooftman, D.A.P. Mapping ecosystem service and biodiversity changes over 70 years in a rural English county. J. Appl. Ecol. 2013, 50, 841–850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Schroth, G.; Laderach, P.; Dempewolf, J.; Philpott, S.M.; Haggar, J.; Eakin, H.; Castillejos, T.; Moreno, J.G.; Soto-Pinto, L.; Hernández, R.; et al. Towards a climate change adaptation strategy for coffee communities and ecosystems in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Mexico. Mitig. Adapt. Strat. Glob. Chang. 2009, 14, 605–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Philpott, S.M.; Lin, B.; Jha, S.; Brines, S.J. A multi-scale assessment of hurricane impacts on agricultural landscapes based on land use and topographic features. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2008, 128, 12–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Huber, R.; Bugmann, H.; Buttler, A.; Rigling, A. Sustainable Land-use Practices in European Mountain Regions under Global Change: An Integrated Research Approach. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18, 37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Blattert, C.; Lemm, R.; Thees, O.; Lexer, M.J.; Hanewinkel, M. Management of ecosystem services in mountain forests: Review of indicators and value functions for model based multi-criteria decision analysis. Ecol. Indic. 2017, 79, 391–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Lundström, C.; Kytzia, S.; Walz, A.; Grêt-Regamey, A.; Bebi, P. Linking Models of Land Use, Resources, and Economy to Simulate the Development of Mountain Regions (ALPSCAPE). Environ. Manag. 2007, 40, 379–393. [Google Scholar]
  20. Swetnam, R.; Fisher, B.; Mbilinyi, B.; Munishi, P.; Willcock, S.; Ricketts, T.; Mwakalila, S.; Balmford, A.; Burgess, N.; Marshall, A.; et al. Mapping socio-economic scenarios of land cover change: A GIS method to enable ecosystem service modelling. J. Environ. Manag. 2011, 92, 563–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Payne, D.; Spehn, E.M.; Snethlage, M.; Fischer, M. Opportunities for research on mountain biodiversity under global change. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2017, 29, 40–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Lavorel, S.; Grigulis, K. How fundamental plant functional trait relationships scale-up to trade-offs and synergies in ecosystem services. J. Ecol. 2011, 100, 128–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Lopa, D.; Mwanyoka, I.; Jambiya, G.; Massoud, T.; Harrison, P.; Ellis-Jones, M.; Blomley, T.; Leimona, B.; Van Noordwijk, M.; Burgess, N.D. Towards operational payments for water ecosystem services in Tanzania: A case study from the Uluguru Mountains. Oryx 2012, 46, 34–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Padilla, F.; Vidal, B.; Sánchez, J.; Pugnaire, F.I. Land-use changes and carbon sequestration through the twentieth century in a Mediterranean mountain ecosystem: Implications for land management. J. Environ. Manag. 2010, 91, 2688–2695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Gratzer, G.; Keeton, W.S. Mountain Forests and Sustainable Development: The Potential for Achieving the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda. Mt. Res. Dev. 2017, 37, 246–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Schirpke, U.; Tappeiner, U.; Tasser, E. A transnational perspective of global and regional ecosystem service flows from and to mountain regions. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 6678. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Grêt–Regamey, A.; Brunner, S.H.; Altwegg, J.; Christen, M.; Bebi, P. Integrating Expert Knowledge into Mapping Ecosystem Services Trade-offs for Sustainable Forest Management. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Hirschi, C.; Briner, S.; Widmer, A.; Huber, R. Combining Policy Network and Model-Based Scenario Analyzes: An Assessment of Future Ecosystem Goods and Services in Swiss Mountain Regions. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18, 42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Rewitzer, S.; Huber, R.; Grêt-Regamey, A.; Barkmann, J. Economic valuation of cultural ecosystem service changes to a landscape in the Swiss Alps. Ecosyst. Serv. 2017, 26, 197–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Pǎtru–Stupariu, I.; Tudor, C.A.; Stupariu, M.S.; Buttler, A.; Peringer, A. Landscape persistence and stakeholder perspectives: The case of Romania’s Carpathian. Appl. Geogr. 2016, 69, 87–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Brändle, J.M.; Langendijk, G.; Peter, S.; Brunner, S.H.; Huber, R. Sensitivity Analysis of a Land-Use Change Model with and without Agents to Assess Land Abandonment and Long-Term Re-Forestation in a Swiss Mountain Region. Land 2015, 4, 475–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Moreno, J.; Palomo, I.; Escalera, J.; Martín-López, B.; Montes, C. Incorporating ecosystem services into ecosystem-based management to deal with complexity: A participative mental model approach. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1407–1421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Lambin, E.F.; Turner, B.L.; Geist, H.J.; Agbola, S.B.; Angelsen, A.; Bruce, J.W.; Coomes, O.T.; Dirzo, R.; Fischer, G.; Folke, C.; et al. The causes of land-use and land-cover change: Moving beyond the myths. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2001, 11, 261–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Ai, J.; Zhang, C.; Chen, L.; Li, D. Mapping Annual Land Use and Land Cover Changes in the Yangtze Estuary Region Using an Object-Based Classification Framework and Landsat Time Series Data. Sustainability 2020, 12, 659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Bürgi, M.; Silbernagel, J.; Wu, J.; Kienast, F. Linking ecosystem services with landscape history. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 30, 11–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Costanza, R.; D’Arge, R.; De Groot, R.; Farber, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; Limburg, K.; Naeem, S.; O’Neill, R.V.; Paruelo, J.; et al. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 1997, 387, 253–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. De Groot, R.S.; A Wilson, M.; Boumans, R.M. A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol. Econ. 2002, 41, 393–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. MEA. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  39. TEEB. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A Synthesis of the Approach, Conclusions and Recommendations of TEEB; The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) Publisher: Nagoya, Japan, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  40. Wu, S.; Li, S. Ecosystem service relationships: Formation and recommended approaches from a systematic review. Ecol. Indic. 2019, 99, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Nath, B.; Wang, Z.; Ge, Y.; Islam, K.; Singh, R.P.; Niu, Z. Land Use and Land Cover Change Modeling and Future Potential Landscape Risk Assessment Using Markov-CA Model and Analytical Hierarchy Process. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, 134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Briner, S.; Huber, R.; Bebi, P.; Elkin, C.M.; Schmatz, D.R.; Grêt–Regamey, A. Trade-Offs between Ecosystem Services in a Mountain Region. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Haines–Young, R.H.; Potschin, M.; Kienast, F. Indicators of ecosystem service potential at European scales: Mapping marginal changes and trade-offs. Ecol. Indic. 2012, 21, 39–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Maes, J.; Paracchini, M.; Zulian, G.; Dunbar, M.; Alkemade, R. Synergies and trade-offs between ecosystem service supply, biodiversity, and habitat conservation status in Europe. Boil. Conserv. 2012, 155, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Nelson, E.; Mendoza, G.; Regetz, J.; Polasky, S.; Tallis, H.; Cameron, D.; Chan, K.M.A.; Daily, G.C.; Goldstein, J.; Kareiva, P.M.; et al. Modeling multiple ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, commodity production, and tradeoffs at landscape scales. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2009, 7, 4–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Polasky, S.; Nelson, E.; Pennington, D.; Johnson, K.A. The Impact of Land-Use Change on Ecosystem Services, Biodiversity and Returns to Landowners: A Case Study in the State of Minnesota. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2010, 48, 219–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Roces–Díaz, J.V.; Burkhard, B.; Kruse, M.; Müller, F.; Díaz-Varela, E.R.; Álvarez-Álvarez, P. Use of ecosystem information derived from forest thematic maps for spatial analysis of ecosystem services in northwestern Spain. Landsc. Ecol. Eng. 2016, 13, 45–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Boyd, J.; Banzhaf, S. What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental accounting units. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 63, 616–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Costanza, R. Ecosystem services: Multiple classification systems are needed. Boil. Conserv. 2008, 141, 350–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Fisher, B.; Turner, R. Ecosystem services: Classification for valuation. Boil. Conserv. 2008, 141, 1167–1169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Ojea, E.; Martin-Ortega, J.; Chiabai, A. Defining and classifying ecosystem services for economic valuation: The case of forest water services. Environ. Sci. Policy 2012, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Wallace, K.J. Classification of ecosystem services: Problems and solutions. Boil. Conserv. 2007, 139, 235–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Costanza, R.; Farber, S.C.; Maxwell, J. Valuation and management of wetland ecosystems. Ecol. Econ. 1989, 1, 335–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. La Notte, A.; D’Amato, D.; Mäkinen, H.; Paracchini, M.L.; Liquete, C.; Egoh, B.; Geneletti, D.; Crossman, N.D. Ecosystem services classification: A systems ecology perspective of the cascade framework. Ecol. Indic. 2017, 74, 392–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Bastian, O. The role of biodiversity in supporting ecosystem services in Natura 2000 sites. Ecol. Indic. 2013, 24, 12–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Hermann, A.; Schleifer, S.; Wrbka, T. The Concept of Ecosystem Services Regarding Landscape Research: A Review. Living Rev. Landsc. Res. 2011, 5, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Albert, C.; Aronson, J.; Fürst, C.; Opdam, P. Integrating ecosystem services in landscape planning: Requirements, approaches, and impacts. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1277–1285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Podschun, S.; Bastian, O.; Haase, D.; Heiland, S.; Kabisch, N.; Müller, F. Does the Ecosystem Service Concept Reach its Limits in Urban Environments? Landsc. Online 2017, 50, 1–21. [Google Scholar]
  59. Aulia, A.F.; Sandhu, H.; Millington, A.C. Quantifying the Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Oil Palm Dominated Landscapes in Riau Province in Sumatra, Indonesia. Land 2020, 9, 194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. CICES. Towards a Common Classification of Ecosystem Services. 2013. Available online: http://cices.eu/ (accessed on 10 July 2020).
  61. Von Haaren, C.; Albert, C. Integrating ecosystem services and environmental planning: Limitations and synergies. Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst. Serv. Manag. 2011, 7, 150–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  62. Bastian, O.; Grunewald, K.; Syrbe, R.-U.; Walz, U.; Wende, W. Landscape services: The concept and its practical relevance. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1463–1479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Termorshuizen, J.W.; Opdam, P. Landscape services as a bridge between landscape ecology and sustainable development. Landsc. Ecol. 2009, 24, 1037–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Hartel, T.; Nita, A.; Rozylowicz, L. Understanding human–nature connections through value networks: The case of ancient wood-pastures of Central Romania. Sustain. Sci. 2020, 15, 1357–1367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Pătru–Stupariu, I.; Nita, A.; Mustăţea, M.; Huzui–Stoiculescu, A.; Fürst, C. Using social network methodological approach to better understand human–wildlife interactions. Land Use Policy 2020, 99, 105009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Kienast, F.; Bolliger, J.; Potschin, M.; de Groot, R.S.; Verburg, P.H.; Heller, I.; Wascher, D.; Haines-Young, R. Assessing landscape functions with broad-scale environmental data: Insights gained from a prototype development for Europe. Environ. Manag. 2009, 44, 1099–1120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  67. Burkhard, B.; Kroll, F.; Nedkov, S.; Müller, F. Mapping ecosystem service supply, demand and budgets. Ecol. Indic. 2012, 21, 17–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Tratalos, J.; Haines-Young, R.; Potschin, M.; Fish, R.; Church, A. Cultural ecosystem services in the UK: Lessons on designing indicators to inform management and policy. Ecol. Indic. 2016, 61, 63–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  69. Martín–López, B.; Leister, I.; Cruz, P.L.; Palomo, I.; Grêt–Regamey, A.; Harrison, P.A.; Lavorel, S.; Locatelli, B.; Luque, S.; Walz, A. Nature’s contributions to people in mountains: A review. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0217847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  70. Metzger, M.J.; Schröter, D.; Leemans, R.; Cramer, W. A spatially explicit and quantitative vulnerability assessment of ecosystem service change in Europe. Reg. Environ. Chang. 2008, 8, 91–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. De Groot, R.; Alkemade, R.; Braat, L.; Hein, L.; Willemen, L. Challenges in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making. Ecol. Complex. 2010, 7, 260–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Nichols, E.; Larsen, T.; Spector, S.; Davis, A.; Escobar, F.; Favila, M.E.; Vulinec, K. Global dung beetle response to tropical forest modification and fragmentation: A quantitative literature review and meta-analysis. Boil. Conserv. 2007, 137, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  73. Seppelt, R.; Dormann, C.; Eppink, F.; Lautenbach, S.; Schmidt, S. A quantitative review of ecosystem service studies: Approaches, shortcomings and the road ahead. J. Appl. Ecol. 2011, 48, 630–636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Seppelt, R.; Fath, B.; Burkhard, B.; Fisher, J.L.; Grêt-Regamey, A.; Lautenbach, S.; Pert, P.L.; Hotes, S.; Spangenberg, J.; Verburg, P.H.; et al. Form follows function? Proposing a blueprint for ecosystem service assessments based on reviews and case studies. Ecol. Indic. 2012, 21, 145–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Iverson, L.R.; Echeverría, C.; Nahuelhual, L.; Luque, S.L. Ecosystem services in changing landscapes: An introduction. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 181–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Wolff, S.; Schulp, C.J.; Verburg, P.H. Mapping ecosystem services demand: A review of current research and future perspectives. Ecol. Indic. 2015, 55, 159–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Mengist, W.; Soromessa, T.; Legese, G. Ecosystem services research in mountainous regions: A systematic literature review on current knowledge and research gaps. Sci. Total. Environ. 2019, 702, 134581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Duarte, G.T.; Santos, P.M.; Cornelissen, T.G.; Ribeiro, M.C.; Paglia, A.P. The effects of landscape patterns on ecosystem services: Meta-analyses of landscape services. Landsc. Ecol. 2018, 33, 1247–1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  79. Hardelin, J.; Lankoski, J. Land Use and Ecosystem Services; OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Balthazar, V.; Vanacker, V.; Molina, A.; Lambin, E.F. Impacts of forest cover change on ecosystem services in high Andean mountains. Ecol. Indic. 2015, 48, 63–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Kandziora, M.; Burkhard, B.; Müller, F. Interactions of ecosystem properties, ecosystem integrity and ecosystem service indicators—A theoretical matrix exercise. Ecol. Indic. 2013, 28, 54–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Zulian, G.; Stange, E.; Woods, H.; Carvalho, L.; Dick, J.; Andrews, C.; Baró, F.; Vizcaino, P.; Barton, D.N.; Nowel, M.; et al. Practical application of spatial ecosystem service models to aid decision support. Ecosyst. Serv. 2018, 29, 465–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Helfenstein, J.; Kienast, F. Ecosystem service state and trends at the regional to national level: A rapid assessment. Ecol. Indic. 2014, 36, 11–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Lautenbach, S.; Kugel, C.; Lausch, A.; Seppelt, R. Analysis of historic changes in regional ecosystem service provisioning using land use data. Ecol. Indic. 2011, 11, 676–687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Grunewald, K.; Bastian, O. Ecosystem assessment and management as key tools for sustainable landscape development: A case study of the Ore Mountains region in Central Europe. Ecol. Model. 2015, 295, 151–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Bastian, O.; Syrbe, R.-U.; Slavik, J.; Moravec, J.; Louda, J.; Kochan, B.; Kochan, N.; Stutzriemer, S.; Berens, A. Ecosystem services of characteristic biotope types in the Ore Mountains (Germany/Czech Republic). Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst. Serv. Manag. 2016, 13, 51–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Guerra, C.A.; Metzger, M.J.; Maes, J.; Pinto-Correia, T. Policy impacts on regulating ecosystem services: Looking at the implications of 60 years of landscape change on soil erosion prevention in a Mediterranean silvo-pastoral system. Landsc. Ecol. 2015, 31, 271–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Uuemaa, E.; Mander, Ü.; Marja, R. Trends in the use of landscape spatial metrics as landscape indicators: A review. Ecol. Indic. 2013, 28, 100–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Frank, S.; Fürst, C.; Koschke, L.; Makeschin, F. A contribution towards a transfer of the ecosystem service concept to landscape planning using landscape metrics. Ecol. Indic. 2012, 21, 30–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Syrbe, R.-U.; Walz, U. Spatial indicators for the assessment of ecosystem services: Providing, benefiting and connecting areas and landscape metrics. Ecol. Indic. 2012, 21, 80–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Grêt–Regamey, A.; Rabe, S.-E.; Crespo, R.; Lautenbach, S.; Ryffel, A.; Schlup, B. On the importance of non-linear relationships between landscape patterns and the sustainable provision of ecosystem services. Landsc. Ecol. 2013, 29, 201–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Eigenbrod, F.; Armsworth, P.R.; Anderson, B.J.; Heinemeyer, A.; Gillings, S.; Roy, D.; Thomas, C.D.; Gaston, K.J. The impact of proxy-based methods on mapping the distribution of ecosystem services. J. Appl. Ecol. 2010, 47, 377–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Grêt–Regamey, A.; Weibel, B.; Bagstad, K.J.; Ferrari, M.; Geneletti, D.; Klug, H.; Schirpke, U.; Tappeiner, U. On the Effects of Scale for Ecosystem Services Mapping. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e112601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Plieninger, T.; Dijks, S.; Oteros–Rozas, E.; Bieling, C. Assessing, mapping, and quantifying cultural ecosystem services at community level. Land Use Policy 2013, 33, 118–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  95. Sutton, C.P.; Costanza, R. Global estimates of market and non-market values derived from night-time satellite imagery, land cover, and ecosystem service valuation. Ecol. Econ. 2002, 41, 509–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Troy, A.; Wilson, M.A. Mapping ecosystem services: Practical challenges and opportunities in linking GIS and value transfer. Ecol. Econ. 2006, 60, 435–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Vannier, C.; Lasseur, R.; Crouzat, E.; Byczek, C.; Lafond, V.; Cordonnier, T.; Longaretti, P.-Y.; Lavorel, S. Mapping ecosystem services bundles in a heterogeneous mountain region. Ecosyst. People 2019, 15, 74–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  98. Bahadur, K.C.K. Spatio-temporal patterns of agricultural expansion and its effect on watershed degradation: A case from the mountains of Nepal. Environ. Earth Sci. 2011, 65, 2063–2077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Pelorosso, R.; Della Chiesa, S.; Tappeiner, U.; Leone, A.; Rocchini, D. Stability analysis for defining management strategies in abandoned mountain landscapes of the Mediterranean basin. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2011, 103, 335–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Pfund, J.-L.; Watts, J.D.; Boissière, M.; Boucard, A.; Bullock, R.M.; Ekadinata, A.; Dewi, S.; Feintrenie, L.; Levang, P.; Rantala, S.; et al. Understanding and Integrating Local Perceptions of Trees and Forests into Incentives for Sustainable Landscape Management. Environ. Manag. 2011, 48, 334–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  101. Teferi, E.; Uhlenbrook, S.; Bewket, W.; Wenninger, J.; Simane, B. The use of remote sensing to quantify wetland loss in the Choke Mountain range, Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2010, 14, 2415–2428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  102. Van Oort, B.; Bhatta, L.D.; Baral, H.; Rai, R.K.; Dhakal, M.; Rucevska, I.; Adhikari, R. Assessing community values to support mapping of ecosystem services in the Koshi river basin, Nepal. Ecosyst. Serv. 2015, 13, 70–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Zoderer, B.M.; Tasser, E.; Erb, K.-H.; Stanghellini, P.S.L.; Tappeiner, U. Identifying and mapping the tourists’ perception of cultural ecosystem services: A case study from an Alpine region. Land Use Policy 2016, 56, 251–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Fürst, C.; Opdam, P.; Inostroza, L.; Luque, S.L. Evaluating the role of ecosystem services in participatory land use planning: Proposing a balanced score card. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1435–1446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Naidoo, R.; Balmford, A.; Costanza, R.; Fisher, B.; Green, R.E.; Lehner, B.; Malcolm, T.R.; Ricketts, T.H. Global mapping of ecosystem services and conservation priorities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 9495–9500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  106. Kandziora, M.; Burkhard, B.; Müller, F. Mapping provisioning ecosystem services at the local scale using data of varying spatial and temporal resolution. Ecosyst. Serv. 2013, 4, 47–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Turner, M.; Donato, D.C.; Romme, W.H. Consequences of spatial heterogeneity for ecosystem services in changing forest landscapes: Priorities for future research. Landsc. Ecol. 2012, 28, 1081–1097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Daily, G.C. ECOLOGY: The Value of Nature and the Nature of Value. Science 2000, 289, 395–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  109. Bieling, C.; Plieninger, T.; Schaich, H. Patterns and causes of land change: Empirical results and conceptual considerations derived from a case study in the Swabian Alb, Germany. Land Use Policy 2013, 35, 192–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Schirpke, U.; Leitinger, G.; Tappeiner, U.; Tasser, E. SPA-LUCC: Developing land-use/cover scenarios in mountain landscapes. Ecol. Inform. 2012, 12, 68–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Miller, J.D.; Skinner, C.N.; Safford, H.D.; Knapp, E.E.; Ramirez, C.M. Trends and causes of severity, size, and number of fires in northwestern California, USA. Ecol. Appl. 2012, 22, 184–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Stürck, J.; Levers, C.; Van Der Zanden, E.H.; Schulp, C.J.; Verkerk, P.J.; Kuemmerle, T.; Helming, J.; Lotze-Campen, H.; Tabeau, A.; Popp, A.; et al. Simulating and delineating future land change trajectories across Europe. Reg. Environ. Chang. 2015, 18, 733–749. [Google Scholar]
  113. Byrd, K.; Flint, L.E.; Álvarez, P.; Casey, C.F.; Sleeter, B.M.; Soulard, C.E.; Flint, A.L.; Sohl, T.L. Integrated climate and land use change scenarios for California rangeland ecosystem services: Wildlife habitat, soil carbon, and water supply. Landsc. Ecol. 2015, 30, 729–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  114. Petz, K.; Glenday, J.; Alkemade, R. Land management implications for ecosystem services in a South African rangeland. Ecol. Indic. 2014, 45, 692–703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Briner, S.; Elkin, C.M.; Huber, R.; Grêt-Regamey, A. Assessing the impacts of economic and climate changes on land-use in mountain regions: A spatial dynamic modeling approach. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2012, 149, 50–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Fisher, B.; Turner, R.K.; Morling, P. Defining and classifying ecosystem services for decision making. Ecol. Econ. 2009, 68, 643–653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  117. Diehl, K.; Burkhard, B.; Jacob, K. Should the ecosystem services concept be used in European Commission impact assessment? Ecol. Indic. 2016, 61, 6–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  118. Albert, C.; Hauck, J.; Buhr, N.; Von Haaren, C. What ecosystem services information do users want? Investigating interests and requirements among landscape and regional planners in Germany. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1301–1313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Manolache, S.; Nita, A.; Ciocanea, C.M.; Popescu, V.D.; Rozylowicz, L. Power, influence and structure in Natura 2000 governance networks. A comparative analysis of two protected areas in Romania. J. Environ. Manag. 2018, 212, 54–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  120. Frank, S.; Fürst, C.; Witt, A.; Koschke, L.; Makeschin, F. Making use of the ecosystem services concept in regional planning—trade-offs from reducing water erosion. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1377–1391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Brauman, K.A.; Freyberg, D.L.; Daily, G.C. Land cover effects on groundwater recharge in the tropics: Ecohydrologic mechanisms. Ecohydrology 2011, 5, 435–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Haase, D.; Schwarz, N.; Strohbach, M.W.; Kroll, F.; Seppelt, R. Synergies, Trade-offs, and Losses of Ecosystem Services in Urban Regions: An Integrated Multiscale Framework Applied to the Leipzig-Halle Region, Germany. Ecol. Soc. 2012, 17, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Sen, G.; Bayramoglu, M.M.; Toksoy, D. Spatiotemporal changes of land use patterns in high mountain areas of Northeast Turkey: A case study in Maçka. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015, 187, 515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Dallimer, M.; Davies, Z.G.; Díaz-Porras, D.; Irvine, K.N.; Maltby, L.; Warren, P.H.; Armsworth, P.R.; Gaston, K.J. Historical influences on the current provision of multiple ecosystem services. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2015, 31, 307–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  125. Na, X.; Zang, S.Y.; Zhang, N.N.; Cui, J. Impact of land use and land cover dynamics on Zhalong wetland reserve ecosystem, Heilongjiang Province, China. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 12, 445–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  126. Hu, H.; Liu, W.; Cao, M. Impact of land use and land cover changes on ecosystem services in Menglun, Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2007, 146, 147–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  127. Huber, L.; Schirpke, U.; Marsoner, T.; Tasser, E.; Leitinger, G. Does socioeconomic diversification enhance multifunctionality of mountain landscapes? Ecosyst. Serv. 2020, 44, 101122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Morán–Ordóñez, A.; Bugter, R.; Suarez-Seoane, S.; De Luis, E.; Calvo, L. Temporal Changes in Socio-Ecological Systems and Their Impact on Ecosystem Services at Different Governance Scales: A Case Study of Heathlands. Ecosystems 2013, 16, 765–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Carpenter, S.R.; Mooney, H.A.; Agard, J.; Capistrano, D.; DeFries, R.S.; Díaz, S.; Dietz, T.; Duraiappah, A.K.; Oteng-Yeboah, A.; Pereira, H.M.; et al. Science for managing ecosystem services: Beyond the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 1305–1312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  130. Raudsepp-Hearne, C.; Peterson, G.D.; Bennett, E.M. Ecosystem service bundles for analyzing tradeoffs in diverse landscapes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 5242–5247. [Google Scholar]
  131. Van Riper, C.J.; Kyle, G.T.; Sutton, S.G.; Barnes, M.; Sherrouse, B.C. Mapping outdoor recreationists’ perceived social values for ecosystem services at Hinchinbrook Island National Park, Australia. Appl. Geogr. 2012, 35, 164–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Egoh, B.; Reyers, B.; Rouget, M.; Richardson, D.M.; Le Maitre, D.C.; Van Jaarsveld, A.S. Mapping ecosystem services for planning and management. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2008, 127, 135–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Bayfield, N.; Barancok, P.; Furger, M.; Sebastià, M.-T.; Domínguez, G.; Lapka, M.; Cudlinova, E.; Vescovo, L.; Ganielle, D.; Cernusca, A.; et al. Stakeholder Perceptions of the Impacts of Rural Funding Scenarios on Mountain Landscapes Across Europe. Ecosystems 2008, 11, 1368–1382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Haslett, J.R.; Berry, P.; Bela, G.; Jongman, R.H.G.; Pataki, G.; Samways, M.J.; Zobel, M. Changing conservation strategies in Europe: A framework integrating ecosystem services and dynamics. Biodivers. Conserv. 2010, 19, 2963–2977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Hauck, J.; Schweppe-Kraft, B.; Albert, C.; Görg, C.; Jensen, R.; Fürst, C.; Maes, J.; Ring, I.; Hönigová, I.; Burkhard, B.; et al. The Promise of the Ecosystem Services Concept for Planning and Decision-Making. GAIA—Ecol. Perspect. Sci. Soc. 2013, 22, 232–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Von Haaren, C.; Albert, C.; Barkmann, J.; De Groot, R.S.; Spangenberg, J.H.; Schröter–Schlaack, C.; Hansjürgens, B. From explanation to application: Introducing a practice-oriented ecosystem services evaluation (PRESET) model adapted to the context of landscape planning and management. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1335–1346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Helming, K.; Diehl, K.; Geneletti, D.; Wiggering, H. Mainstreaming ecosystem services in European policy impact assessment. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2013, 40, 82–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Vignola, R.; McDaniels, T.L.; Scholz, R.W. Governance structures for ecosystem-based adaptation: Using policy-network analysis to identify key organizations for bridging information across scales and policy areas. Environ. Sci. Policy 2013, 31, 71–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  139. McNeely, J.A. Protected areas for the 21st century: Working to provide benefits to society. Biodivers. Conserv. 1994, 3, 390–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Monzón, J.; Palamar, M.B.; Moyer-Horner, L. Climate Change and Species Range Dynamics in Protected Areas. Bioscience 2011, 61, 752–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  141. Farhad, S.; Gual, M.A.; Ruiz-Ballesteros, E. Linking governance and ecosystem services: The case of Isla Mayor (Andalusia, Spain). Land Use Policy 2015, 46, 91–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Libert–Amico, A.; Trench, T.; Rodriguez, A.; del Pilar Martinez-Morales, M. Multilevel governance experiences in Mexico: Innovation For carbon emissions reduction in terrestrial ecosystems. Madera Y Bosques 2018, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Báliková, K.; Červená, T.; De Meo, I.; De Vreese, R.; Deniz, T.; El Mokaddem, A.; Kayacan, B.; Larabi, F.; Lībiete, Z.; Lyubenova, M.; et al. How Do Stakeholders Working on the Forest–Water Nexus Perceive Payments for Ecosystem Services? Forests 2019, 11, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  144. Weiss, G.; Ramcilovic-Suominen, S.; Mavsar, R. Financing mechanisms for forest ecosystem services in Europe and their implications for forest governance. Allg. Forst und Jagdztg. 2011, 182, 61–69. [Google Scholar]
  145. Lambin, E.F.; Meyfroidt, P.; Rueda, X.; Blackman, A.; Börner, J.; Cerutti, P.O.; Dietsch, T.; Jungmann, L.; Lamarque, P.; Lister, J.; et al. Effectiveness and synergies of policy instruments for land use governance in tropical regions. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2014, 28, 129–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  146. Rode, J.; Wittmer, H.; Emerton, L.; Schröter-Schlaack, C. ‘Ecosystem service opportunities’: A practice-oriented framework for identifying economic instruments to enhance biodiversity and human livelihoods. J. Nat. Conserv. 2016, 33, 35–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  147. Alarcon, G.G.; Fantini, A.C.; Salvador, C.H.; Farley, J. Additionality is in detail: Farmers’ choices regarding payment for ecosystem services programs in the Atlantic forest, Brazil. J. Rural. Stud. 2017, 54, 177–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  148. Canova, M.A.; Lapola, D.M.; Pinho, P.; Dick, J.; Patricio, G.B.; Priess, J.A. Different ecosystem services, same (dis)satisfaction with compensation: A critical comparison between farmers’ perception in Scotland and Brazil. Ecosyst. Serv. 2019, 35, 164–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  149. Benjamin, E.; Sauer, J. The cost effectiveness of payments for ecosystem services—Smallholders and agroforestry in Africa. Land Use Policy 2018, 71, 293–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  150. Sikor, T.; Auld, G.; Bebbington, A.J.; Benjaminsen, T.A.; Gentry, B.S.; Hunsberger, C.; Izac, A.-M.; E Margulis, M.; Plieninger, T.; Schroeder, H.; et al. Global land governance: From territory to flow? Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2013, 5, 522–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  151. Colavitti, A.M.; Serra, S. The role of regulation in the land-take control. The italian case of the metropolitan city of cagliari. Land Use Policy 2019, 83, 270–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Wang, P.; Wolf, S.A. A targeted approach to payments for ecosystem services. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2019, 17, e00577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Caro-Borrero, Á.P.; Corbera, E.; Neitzel, K.C.; Almeida-Leñero, L. “We are the city lungs”: Payments for ecosystem services in the outskirts of Mexico City. Land Use Policy 2015, 43, 138–148. [Google Scholar]
  154. Cadman, T.; Sarker, T.; Muttaqin, Z.; Nurfatriani, F.; Salminah, M.; Maraseni, T. The role of fiscal instruments in encouraging the private sector and smallholders to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation: Evidence from Indonesia. For. Policy Econ. 2019, 108, 101913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  155. Hein, L.; Van Der Meer, P.J. REDD+ in the context of ecosystem management. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2012, 4, 604–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  156. Tegegne, Y.T.; Lindner, M.; Fobissie, K.; Kanninen, M. Evolution of drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the Congo Basin forests: Exploring possible policy options to address forest loss. Land Use Policy 2016, 51, 312–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  157. Nita, A. Empowering impact assessments knowledge and international research collaboration—A bibliometric analysis of Environmental Impact Assessment Review journal. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2019, 78, 106283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  158. Hysing, E.; Lidskog, R. Policy Contestation over the Ecosystem Services Approach in Sweden. Soc. Nat. Resour. 2018, 31, 393–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  159. Cowling, R.M.; Egoh, B.; Knight, A.T.; O’Farrell, P.J.; Reyers, B.; Rouget, M.; Roux, D.J.; Welz, A.; Wilhelm-Rechman, A. An operational model for mainstreaming ecosystem services for implementation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 9483–9488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  160. Primmer, E.; Jokinen, P.; Blicharska, M.; Barton, D.N.; Bugter, R.; Potschin, M. Governance of Ecosystem Services: A framework for empirical analysis. Ecosyst. Serv. 2015, 16, 158–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  161. Almenar, J.B.; Rugani, B.; Geneletti, D.; Brewer, T. Integration of ecosystem services into a conceptual spatial planning framework based on a landscape ecology perspective. Landsc. Ecol. 2018, 33, 2047–2059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  162. Lamarque, P.; Meyfroidt, P.; Nettier, B.; Lavorel, S. How Ecosystem Services Knowledge and Values Influence Farmers’ Decision-Making. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e107572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Figure 1. Categories of ecosystem services addressed in the analyzed papers.
Figure 1. Categories of ecosystem services addressed in the analyzed papers.
Land 09 00336 g001
Figure 2. Methods used to assess mountain ecosystem services in the analyzed papers.
Figure 2. Methods used to assess mountain ecosystem services in the analyzed papers.
Land 09 00336 g002
Figure 3. Embedding linkages between land use and ecosystem services into the policy cycle.
Figure 3. Embedding linkages between land use and ecosystem services into the policy cycle.
Land 09 00336 g003
Table 1. Linking land use change in mountain regions with ecosystem services.
Table 1. Linking land use change in mountain regions with ecosystem services.
MethodLinkages to Ecosystem Services
Land use/ land cover changeChanges in LULC influence the provision of ES; spatial variation effect on the supply-side of the ecosystem services flow
Landscape metricsChanges in landscape pattern influence landscape functions and the provision of ES
MappingClassification of land uses; scenario development for land use planning
Landscape historyUnderstanding the evolution of landscape over time; it enables estimations of future ES
Scenario developmentScenario modeling for the supply of ES under different land use planning strategies
Table 2. Linkages between land use change, mountain ecosystem services and stakeholders.
Table 2. Linkages between land use change, mountain ecosystem services and stakeholders.
Type of StakeholderApproach to LU Change and ESBenefits for Stakeholders
ResidentsMental mapsUltimate beneficiaries of successful governance (identification of most pressing needs and significant opportunities)
Local knowledge transfer during the policy formulation process
Subnational decision-makerParticipatory assessment of ESInform decision-making process for management and planning
Local planning process
Impact assessment studies
National policy decision-makerEx-ante policy assessment models of ESConfirm and validate planning and policy measures, reducing uncertainties related to effects on future land uses
Participatory planning
Payments for ecosystem services

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Pătru-Stupariu, I.; Hossu, C.A.; Grădinaru, S.R.; Nita, A.; Stupariu, M.-S.; Huzui-Stoiculescu, A.; Gavrilidis, A.-A. A Review of Changes in Mountain Land Use and Ecosystem Services: From Theory to Practice. Land 2020, 9, 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090336

AMA Style

Pătru-Stupariu I, Hossu CA, Grădinaru SR, Nita A, Stupariu M-S, Huzui-Stoiculescu A, Gavrilidis A-A. A Review of Changes in Mountain Land Use and Ecosystem Services: From Theory to Practice. Land. 2020; 9(9):336. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090336

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pătru-Stupariu, Ileana, Constantina Alina Hossu, Simona Raluca Grădinaru, Andreea Nita, Mihai-Sorin Stupariu, Alina Huzui-Stoiculescu, and Athanasios-Alexandru Gavrilidis. 2020. "A Review of Changes in Mountain Land Use and Ecosystem Services: From Theory to Practice" Land 9, no. 9: 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090336

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop