Polymers

13 pages, 1647 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micro-Scale Shear Kneading—Gluten Network Development under Multiple Stress–Relaxation Steps and Evaluation via Multiwave Rheology

by Leonhard Maria Vidal, Andre Braun, Mario Jekle and Thomas Becker

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040846 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2422

Abstract

To evaluate the kneading process of wheat flour dough, the state of the art is a subsequent and static measuring step on kneaded dough samples. In this study, an in-line measurement setup was set up in a rheometer based on previously validated shear [...] Read more.

To evaluate the kneading process of wheat flour dough, the state of the art is a subsequent and static measuring step on kneaded dough samples. In this study, an in-line measurement setup was set up in a rheometer based on previously validated shear kneading processes. With this approach, the challenge of sample transfer between the kneader and a measurement device was overcome. With the developed approach, an analysis of the dynamic development of the dough is possible. Through consecutive stress–relaxation steps with increasing deformation, a kneading setup in a conventional rheometer is implemented. Fitting of the shear stress curve with a linearization approach, as well as fitting of the relaxation modulus after each kneading step, is a new way to evaluate the matrix development. Subsequently, multiwave rheology is used to validate the kneading process in-line. The shear kneading setup was capable of producing an optimally developed dough matrix close to the reference kneading time of 150 ± 7.9 s (n = 3). The linearization approach as well as the power-law fit of the relaxation modulus revealed gluten network development comparable to the reference dough. With this approach, a deeper insight into gluten network development and crosslinking processes during wheat flour dough kneading is given. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Biomaterials)

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21 pages, 5168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilizing Biomass-Based Graphene Oxide–Polyaniline–Ag Electrodes in Microbial Fuel Cells to Boost Energy Generation and Heavy Metal Removal

by Asim Ali Yaqoob, Albert Serrà, Showkat Ahmad Bhawani, Mohamad Nasir Mohamad Ibrahim, Anish Khan, Hajer S. Alorfi, Abdullah M. Asiri, Mahmoud Ali Hussein, Imran Khan and Khalid Umar

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040845 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 3196

Abstract

Although regarded as environmentally stable, bioelectrochemical fuel cells or, microbial fuel cells (MFCs) continue to face challenges with sustaining electron transport. In response, we examined the performance of two graphene composite-based anode electrodes—graphene oxide (GO) and GO–polymer–metal oxide (GO–PANI–Ag)—prepared from biomass and used [...] Read more.

Although regarded as environmentally stable, bioelectrochemical fuel cells or, microbial fuel cells (MFCs) continue to face challenges with sustaining electron transport. In response, we examined the performance of two graphene composite-based anode electrodes—graphene oxide (GO) and GO–polymer–metal oxide (GO–PANI–Ag)—prepared from biomass and used in MFCs. Over 7 days of operation, GO energy efficiency peaked at 1.022 mW/m² and GO–PANI–Ag at 2.09 mW/m². We also tested how well the MFCs could remove heavy metal ions from synthetic wastewater, a secondary application of MFCs that offers considerable benefits. Overall, GO–PANI–Ag had a higher removal rate than GO, with 78.10% removal of Pb(II) and 80.25% removal of Cd(II). Material characterizations, electrochemical testing, and microbial testing conducted to validate the anodes performance confirmed that using new materials as electrodes in MFCs can be an attractive approach to improve the electron transportation. When used with a natural organic substrate (e.g., sugar cane juice), they also present fewer challenges. We also optimized different parameters to confirm the efficiency of the MFCs under various operating conditions. Considering those results, we discuss some lingering challenges and potential possibilities for MFCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Fuel Cell Applications)

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23 pages, 4805 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Brief Review of Poly (Butylene Succinate) (PBS) and Its Main Copolymers: Synthesis, Blends, Composites, Biodegradability, and Applications

by Laura Aliotta, Maurizia Seggiani, Andrea Lazzeri, Vito Gigante and Patrizia Cinelli

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040844 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 108 | Viewed by 13498

Abstract

PBS, an acronym for poly (butylene succinate), is an aliphatic polyester that is attracting increasing attention due to the possibility of bio-based production, as well as its balanced properties, enhanced processability, and excellent biodegradability. This brief review has the aim to provide the [...] Read more.

PBS, an acronym for poly (butylene succinate), is an aliphatic polyester that is attracting increasing attention due to the possibility of bio-based production, as well as its balanced properties, enhanced processability, and excellent biodegradability. This brief review has the aim to provide the status concerning the synthesis, production, thermal, morphological and mechanical properties underlying biodegradation ability, and major applications of PBS and its principal copolymers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased and Biodegradable Polymer Blends and Composites)

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15 pages, 3191 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of Cellulose and Flax Fiber Unidirectional Reinforced Plywood

by Johannes Jorda, Günther Kain, Marius-Catalin Barbu, Berndt Köll, Alexander Petutschnigg and Pavel Král

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040843 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2438

Abstract

This research presents the influence of two different cellulose (hydrophobic pretreated/non-pretreated) and one flax-fiber unidirectional nonwoven low areal weight fiber reinforcements on the mechanical properties of urea-formaldehyde bonded five layered beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) plywood as an alternative to commonly used synthetic [...] Read more.

This research presents the influence of two different cellulose (hydrophobic pretreated/non-pretreated) and one flax-fiber unidirectional nonwoven low areal weight fiber reinforcements on the mechanical properties of urea-formaldehyde bonded five layered beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) plywood as an alternative to commonly used synthetic fiber reinforcements. The results display divergent trends regarding the improvement of the mechanical properties—modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture, tensile strength, shear strength, and screw withdrawal resistance. The non-treated cellulose and flax reinforcing nonwoven fabrics revealed similar mechanical behaviors. The hydrophobic pretreatment of cellulose nonwovens improved the performance of plywood regarding tensile strength (10–11%), shear strength (7–16%), screw withdrawal resistance (11–15%), and modulus of rupture (0–2%), but lowered modulus of elasticity (2–3%) compared to the reference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Waste-Based Composites)

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29 pages, 4065 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Boronic Acid Esters and Anhydrates as Dynamic Cross-Links in Vitrimers

by Mateusz Gosecki and Monika Gosecka

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040842 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7691

Abstract

Growing environmental awareness imposes on polymer scientists the development of novel materials that show a longer lifetime and that can be easily recycled. These challenges were largely met by vitrimers, a new class of polymers that merges properties of thermoplastics and thermosets. This [...] Read more.

Growing environmental awareness imposes on polymer scientists the development of novel materials that show a longer lifetime and that can be easily recycled. These challenges were largely met by vitrimers, a new class of polymers that merges properties of thermoplastics and thermosets. This is achieved by the incorporation of dynamic covalent bonds into the polymer structure, which provides high stability at the service temperature, but enables the processing at elevated temperatures. Numerous types of dynamic covalent bonds have been utilized for the synthesis of vitrimers. Amongst them, boronic acid-based linkages, namely boronic acid esters and boroxines, are distinguished by their quick exchange kinetics and the possibility of easy application in various polymer systems, from commercial thermoplastics to low molecular weight thermosetting resins. This review covers the development of dynamic cross-links. This review is aimed at providing the state of the art in the utilization of boronic species for the synthesis of covalent adaptable networks. We mainly focus on the synthetic aspects of boronic linkages-based vitrimers construction. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives are provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Frontier of Self-Assembled Polymers and Dendronized Polymers-Based Smart Materials)

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10 pages, 2774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness and Productivity Improvement of Conventional Pultrusion Processes

by Evgeny Barkanov, Pavel Akishin and Endija Namsone-Sile

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040841 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1857

Abstract

Pultrusion is a technological process in which fibers impregnated with resin move through the heated die and solidify into a composite profile with a constant cross section, as in the metallic die. The effectiveness and productivity of conventional pultrusion processes, preserving the quality [...] Read more.

Pultrusion is a technological process in which fibers impregnated with resin move through the heated die and solidify into a composite profile with a constant cross section, as in the metallic die. The effectiveness and productivity of conventional pultrusion processes, preserving the quality of pultruded profiles, could be improved by process optimization or by the application of new, effective heating sources instead of electrical resistances with high heat losses. Due to the large dimension of the numerical problem and multiple iterations applied for the solution of government equations, an optimization methodology was developed, using the method of experimental design and the response surface technique. To develop microwave-assisted pultrusion processes, as well as pultrusion tooling design and process control, new effective electromagnetic-thermo-chemical finite element models and algorithms were developed by using general-purpose finite element software that results in considerable savings in development time and costs and makes available various modeling features of the finite element packages. The effectiveness and productivity of the optimized conventional pultrusion processes and the developed microwave-assisted pultrusion processes are estimated in comparison with the real pultrusion processes used in laboratory and industrial shops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization and Performance)

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11 pages, 614 KiB

Open AccessReview

Antibiotic-Loaded Polymeric Barrier Membranes for Guided Bone/Tissue Regeneration: A Mini-Review

by Manuel Toledano-Osorio, Cristina Vallecillo, Marta Vallecillo-Rivas, Francisco-Javier Manzano-Moreno and Raquel Osorio

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040840 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2625

Abstract

Polymeric membranes are frequently used for bone regeneration in oral and periodontal surgery. Polymers provide adequate mechanical properties (i.e., Young’s modulus) to support oral function and also pose some porosity with interconnectivity to permit for cell proliferation and migration. Bacterial contamination of the [...] Read more.

Polymeric membranes are frequently used for bone regeneration in oral and periodontal surgery. Polymers provide adequate mechanical properties (i.e., Young’s modulus) to support oral function and also pose some porosity with interconnectivity to permit for cell proliferation and migration. Bacterial contamination of the membrane is an event that may lead to infection at the bone site, hindering the clinical outcomes of the regeneration procedure. Therefore, polymeric membranes have been proposed as carriers for local antibiotic therapy. A literature search was performed for papers, including peer-reviewed publications. Among the different membranes, collagen is the most employed biomaterial. Collagen membranes and expanded polytetrafluoroethylene loaded with tetracyclines, and polycaprolactone with metronidazole are the combinations that have been assayed the most. Antibiotic liberation is produced in two phases. A first burst release is sometimes followed by a sustained liberation lasting from 7 to 28 days. All tested combinations of membranes and antibiotics provoke an antibacterial effect, but most of the time, they were measured against single bacteria cultures and usually non-specific pathogenic bacteria were employed, limiting the clinical relevance of the attained results. The majority of the studies on animal models state a beneficial effect of these antibiotic functionalized membranes, but human clinical assays are scarce and controversial. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis of Polymer Membranes and Their Applications)

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34 pages, 75830 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Developments in Hyaluronic Acid-Based Hydrogels for Cartilage Tissue Engineering Applications

by Evgenia Tsanaktsidou, Olga Kammona and Costas Kiparissides

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040839 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6608

Abstract

Articular cartilage lesions resulting from injurious impact, recurring loading, joint malalignment, etc., are very common and encompass the risk of evolving to serious cartilage diseases such as osteoarthritis. To date, cartilage injuries are typically treated via operative procedures such as autologous chondrocyte implantation [...] Read more.

Articular cartilage lesions resulting from injurious impact, recurring loading, joint malalignment, etc., are very common and encompass the risk of evolving to serious cartilage diseases such as osteoarthritis. To date, cartilage injuries are typically treated via operative procedures such as autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI), matrix-associated autologous chondrocyte implantation (MACI) and microfracture, which are characterized by low patient compliance. Accordingly, cartilage tissue engineering (CTE) has received a lot of interest. Cell-laden hydrogels are favorable candidates for cartilage repair since they resemble the native tissue environment and promote the formation of extracellular matrix. Various types of hydrogels have been developed so far for CTE applications based on both natural and synthetic biomaterials. Among these materials, hyaluronic acid (HA), a principal component of the cartilage tissue which can be easily modified and biofunctionalized, has been favored for the development of hydrogels since it interacts with cell surface receptors, supports the growth of chondrocytes and promotes the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to chondrocytes. The present work reviews the various types of HA-based hydrogels (e.g., in situ forming hydrogels, cryogels, microgels and three-dimensional (3D)-bioprinted hydrogel constructs) that have been used for cartilage repair, specially focusing on the results of their preclinical and clinical assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Polymer Physics and Theory)

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20 pages, 4744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Additives and Environment on Biodegradation of PHBV Biocomposites

by Pavel Brdlík, Martin Borůvka, Luboš Běhálek and Petr Lenfeld

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 838; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040838 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2825

Abstract

The biodegradation of polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) ternary biocomposites containing nature-based plasticizer acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), heterogeneous nucleation agents—calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and spray-dried lignin-coated cellulose nanocrystals (L-CNC)—in vermicomposting, freshwater biotope, and thermophilic composting have been studied. The degree of disintegration, differential scanning calorimetry [...] Read more.

The biodegradation of polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) ternary biocomposites containing nature-based plasticizer acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), heterogeneous nucleation agents—calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and spray-dried lignin-coated cellulose nanocrystals (L-CNC)—in vermicomposting, freshwater biotope, and thermophilic composting have been studied. The degree of disintegration, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and the evaluation of surface images taken by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were conducted for the determination influence of different environments and additives on the biodegradation of PHBV. Furthermore, the method adapted from ISO 14855-1 standard was used for thermophilic composting. It is a method based on the measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide evolved during microbial degradation. The highest biodegradation rate was observed in the thermophilic condition of composting. The biodegradation level of all PHBV-based samples was, after 90 days, higher than 90%. Different mechanisms of degradation and consequently different degradation rate were evaluated in vermicomposting and freshwater biotope. The surface enzymatic degradation, observed during the vermicomposting process, showed slightly higher biodegradation potential than the hydrolytic attack of freshwater biotope. The application of ATBC plasticizers in the PHBV matrix caused an increase in biodegradation rate in all environments. However, the highest biodegradation rate was achieved for ternary PHBV biocomposites containing 10 wt. % of ATBC and 10 wt. % of CaCO₃. A considerable increase in the degree of disintegration was evaluated, even in freshwater biotope. Furthermore, the slight inhibition effect of L-CNC on the biodegradation process of ternary PHBV/ATBC/L-CNC could be stated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Biocompatible and Biodegradable Polymers and Their Composites)

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18 pages, 9252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Triaxial Tests with Polymer Matrix Composites

by María del Carmen Serna Moreno, Sergio Horta Muñoz and Alberto Ruiz Gracia

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 837; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040837 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1659

Abstract

Multiaxial testing in composites may generate failure modes which are more representative of what occurs in a real structure submitted to complex loading conditions. However, some of its main handicaps include the need for special facilities, the correct design of the experiments, and [...] Read more.

Multiaxial testing in composites may generate failure modes which are more representative of what occurs in a real structure submitted to complex loading conditions. However, some of its main handicaps include the need for special facilities, the correct design of the experiments, and the challenging interpretation of the results. The framework of this research is based on a triaxial testing machine with six actuators which is able to apply simultaneous and synchronized axial loads in the three space directions. Then, the aim was to design from a numerical point of view a triaxial experiment adapted to this equipment. The methodology proposed could allow for an adequate characterization of the triaxial response of a polymer-based composite with apparent isotropic behaviour in the testing directions. The finite element method (FEM) is applied in order to define the geometry of the triaxial specimen. The design pursues to achieve homogeneous stress and strain states in the triaxially loaded region, which should be accessible for direct measurement of the strains. Moreover, a fixing system is proposed for experimentally reproducing the desired boundary conditions imposed on the numerical simulations. The procedure to determine the full strain tensor in the triaxially loaded region is described analytically and with the help of FEM virtual testing. The hydrostatic component and the deviatoric part of the strain tensor are proposed for estimating the susceptibility of the polymer-based composite to fail due to the triaxial strain state imposed. Then, the loading scenarios that cause higher values of the deviatoric components in the triaxially loaded region are considered to be more prone to damage the region of interest. Nevertheless, the experimental failure is expected to be produced in the arms of the specimen which are uniaxially loaded, since in all of the loading cases the simulations show higher levels of stress concentration out of the triaxially loaded region. Thus, although the triaxial strength could not be accurately determined by the proposed tests, they can be utilized for observing the triaxial response before failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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17 pages, 3680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation on the Seal Performance of SMP-Based Packers in Oil Wells

by Naihan Chen, Xuelin Dong and Yinji Ma

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040836 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2816

Abstract

Packers based on shape memory polymers (SMPs) are an emerging technology that have the advantages of compact structure, easy manufacture, and adaptability to complex wells. This paper proposes a finite element model to simulate the setting process and mechanical response of an SMP [...] Read more.

Packers based on shape memory polymers (SMPs) are an emerging technology that have the advantages of compact structure, easy manufacture, and adaptability to complex wells. This paper proposes a finite element model to simulate the setting process and mechanical response of an SMP packer. The investigated material is an epoxy-based thermal responsive SMP, whose relaxation modulus and thermal expansion coefficient were measured at different temperatures. Based on the experimental data, the model describes the viscoelastic behavior of the SMP using the generalized Maxwell model. The results show that the SMP packer could provide sufficient contact stress under downhole conditions, even after the stress was relaxed. A further parametric study revealed that the most significant factor in sealing effects is the wellbore pressure, followed by the interference between the packer and the annular, the seal length, the pre-compression, and the setting temperature. High downhole pressures require more significant contact stress and increase the risk of slip between the packer and casing wall by promoting shear stress. Increasing the seal length and interference enhances the contact stress and mitigates the shear stress to improve the seal performance. Pre-compression and setting temperatures are minor factors that have little influence on sealability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Smart and Functional Polymers)

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11 pages, 782 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bioactive Films Based on Starch from White, Red, and Black Rice to Food Application

by Luan Ramos da Silva, José Ignacio Velasco and Farayde Matta Fakhouri

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040835 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2612

Abstract

Packages from renewable sources have been the focus of many studies, due to the consumer needs for high-quality food, environmental concern related to the inadequate discard of packaging, low percentage of packaging recycling, and starch application by a viable method. Thus, this work [...] Read more.

Packages from renewable sources have been the focus of many studies, due to the consumer needs for high-quality food, environmental concern related to the inadequate discard of packaging, low percentage of packaging recycling, and starch application by a viable method. Thus, this work aimed to develop bioactive packages based on white, red, and black rice starch and analyze the influence of macromolecule and plasticizer type, even its blends, on the characteristics of films. Films were characterized by color, opacity, thickness, water solubility, water vapor permeability, and bioactive properties. The use of rice starch in the development of edible and/or biodegradable films was feasible, with all the formulations tested presenting a homogeneous matrix and the films obtained varying in hue, to the naked eye, as a function of the starch used. Variation of the type of starch and plasticizer, as well as the concentrations of the same, resulted in films with differences in all studied properties. Films prepared with 5% of starch and 30% of sorbitol showed phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity, using the DPPH and ABTS methods, indicating that these can be considered bioactive packages and also suitable for food application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymers from Renewable Sources and Their Applications)

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11 pages, 10576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tactile Sensing Using Magnetic Foam

by Gildas Diguet, Joerg Froemel, Masanori Muroyama and Koichi Ohtaka

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040834 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1758

Abstract

For biomedical applications, smart materials that are used as sensors or actuators have to match some criteria, especially bio-compatibility and softness. Smart polymers are candidates that fulfill these two criteria. A sensitivity to compression is created by adding magnetic particles to a compressible [...] Read more.

For biomedical applications, smart materials that are used as sensors or actuators have to match some criteria, especially bio-compatibility and softness. Smart polymers are candidates that fulfill these two criteria. A sensitivity to compression is created by adding magnetic particles to a compressible foam polymer. A foam-based composite is fabricated for its small Poisson’s ratio, which enables significant compression, up to 50%. This large compression induces a change in its magnetic properties, which can be detected using coils. By setting the sensing coils as a compact array of 3 × 3, the sensor successfully detected and localized an applied deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)

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17 pages, 3948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Characterization of Hydrophobic Cellulose Nanofibrils/Silica Nanocomposites with Hexadecyltrimethoxysilane

by Gi-Hong Kim, Dong-Ho Kang, Bich-Nam Jung and Jin-Kie Shim

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 833; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040833 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2891

Abstract

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) have attracted much attention because of their renewability and potential biocompatibility. However, CNFs are extremely hydrophilic due to the presence of a large number of hydroxyl groups, limiting their use as a water-resistant material. In this work, we controlled the [...] Read more.

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) have attracted much attention because of their renewability and potential biocompatibility. However, CNFs are extremely hydrophilic due to the presence of a large number of hydroxyl groups, limiting their use as a water-resistant material. In this work, we controlled the adsorption behavior of silica nanoparticles on the surface of CNFs by adjusting the synthesis conditions. The silica nanoparticle size and packing efficiency on the CNF surface could be controlled by varying the ammonium hydroxide and water concentrations. In addition, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane (HDTMS) was successfully grafted onto CNF or CNF/silica nanocomposite surfaces, and the quantitative content of organic/inorganic substances in HDTMS was analyzed through XPS and TGA. The HDTMS-modified CNF/silica nanocomposites were more advantageous in terms of hydrophobicity than the HDTMS-modified CNF composites. This is because the silica nanoparticles were adsorbed on the surface of the CNFs, increasing the surface roughness and simultaneously increasing the amount of HDTMS. As a result, the HDTMS-modified CNFs showed a water contact angle (WCA) of ~80°, whereas HDTMS-modified CNF/silica nanocomposites obtained superhydrophobicity, with a WCA of up to ~159°. This study can provide a reference for the expansion of recyclable eco-friendly coating materials via the adsorption of silica nanoparticles and hydrophobic modification of CNF materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)

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14 pages, 3801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Suberin Fatty Acid Hydrolysates from Outer Birch Bark for Hydrophobic Coating on Aspen Wood Surface

by Anuj Kumar, Risto Korpinen, Veikko Möttönen and Erkki Verkasalo

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040832 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2760

Abstract

Bark extracts are sustainable sources of biopolymers and have great potential to replace fossil-based polymers in wood coating applications. The present study investigated the applicability of suberin fatty acids hydrolysate (SFA) extracted from the outer bark of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) [...] Read more.

Bark extracts are sustainable sources of biopolymers and have great potential to replace fossil-based polymers in wood coating applications. The present study investigated the applicability of suberin fatty acids hydrolysate (SFA) extracted from the outer bark of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) for coating of aspen wood (Populus tremula L.). The SFA combined with maleic anhydride (MA) and octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) as a curing agent was prepared in ethanol and used in surface coating. The water contact angle, surface reflectance spectra, FTIR, and SEM-EDS were used to characterize the physical and chemical properties of the coated wood samples. Further, the long-term stability of the SFA coating was analyzed via artificial aging. The wood surface became hydrophobic, as the contact angle for the water droplet (WCA) was over ~120°, and was stable for all of the prepared combinations of SFA, MA, and OTS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Materials: Contribution to Advancing Circular Economy)

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16 pages, 2491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Performance Polyurethane Nanocomposite Membranes Containing Cellulose Nanocrystals for Protein Separation

by Víctor-Hugo Antolín-Cerón, Francisco-Jesús González-López, Pablo Daniel Astudillo-Sánchez, Karla-Alejandra Barrera-Rivera and Antonio Martínez-Richa

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 831; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040831 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2178

Abstract

With the aim of exploring new materials and properties, we report the synthesis of a thermoplastic chain extended polyurethane membrane, with superior strength and toughness, obtained by incorporating two different concentrations of reactive cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) for potential use in kidney dialysis. Membrane [...] Read more.

With the aim of exploring new materials and properties, we report the synthesis of a thermoplastic chain extended polyurethane membrane, with superior strength and toughness, obtained by incorporating two different concentrations of reactive cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) for potential use in kidney dialysis. Membrane nanocomposites were prepared by the phase inversion method and their structure and properties were determined. These materials were prepared from a polyurethane (PU) yielded from poly(1,4 butylene adipate) as a soft segment diol, isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) and hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) as isocyanate and chain extender, respectively (hard segment), filled with 1 or 2% w/w CNC. Membrane preparation was made by the phase inversion method using N,N-dimethylformamide as solvent and water as nonsolvent, and subjected to dead-end microfiltration. Membranes were evaluated by their pure water flux, water content, hydraulic resistance and protein rejection. Polymers and nanocomposites were characterized by scanning electronic and optical microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, infrared spectroscopy, strain stress testing and ¹³C solid state nuclear magnetic resonance. The most remarkable effects observed by the addition of CNCs are (i) a substantial increment in Young’s modulus to twenty-two times compared with the neat PU and (ii) a marked increase in pure water flux up to sixty times, for sample containing 1% (w/w) of CNC. We found that nanofiller has a strong affinity to soft segment diol, which crystallizes in the presence of CNCs, developing both superior mechanical and pure water flow properties, compared to neat PU. The presence of nanofiller also modifies PU intermolecular interactions and consequently the nature of membrane pores. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Performance Polymer Membranes)

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9 pages, 836 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Optimization of Different Acid-Catalyzed Pretreatments on Co-Production of Xylooligosaccharides and Glucose from Sorghum Stalk

by Xiaocui Yang, Xiaoliu Liu, Yequan Sheng, Hanzhou Yang, Xinshuai Xu, Yuheng Tao and Minglong Zhang

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040830 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1550

Abstract

There is an increasing emphasis on the transformation of lignocellulosic biomass into versatile products. The feasibility of preparing xylooligosaccharides (XOS) by hydrolysis of sorghum stalk (SS) using organic and inorganic acids was studied. The influences of different acids (gluconic acid, acetic acid, sulfuric [...] Read more.

There is an increasing emphasis on the transformation of lignocellulosic biomass into versatile products. The feasibility of preparing xylooligosaccharides (XOS) by hydrolysis of sorghum stalk (SS) using organic and inorganic acids was studied. The influences of different acids (gluconic acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and oxalic acid), process time and temperature on the hydrolysis of SS were explored. The findings indicated XOS yield can be maintained at a high level under different conditions with organic acid pretreatments. Optimum yield of XOS (39.4%) was obtained using sulfuric acid (pH 2.2) at 170 °C and 75 min of process time. It is suggested when reaction temperature and time were increased, both X5 and X6 are cracked into XOS with lower molecular mass such as X2, X3, and X4. Moreover, the results based on mass balance showed that up to 110 g (XOS) plus 117 g (glucose) can be recovered from 1000 g of SS. Results will give insights into establishing an efficient acid pretreatment of sorghum stalk to coproduction of XOS and glucose. Full article

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23 pages, 2418 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advancements in Smart Biogenic Packaging: Reshaping the Future of the Food Packaging Industry

by Vandana Chaudhary, Sneh Punia Bangar, Neha Thakur and Monica Trif

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 829; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040829 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6600

Abstract

Due to their complete non-biodegradability, current food packages have resulted in major environmental issues. Today’s smart consumer is looking for alternatives that are environmentally friendly, durable, recyclable, and naturally rather than synthetically derived. It is a well-established fact that complete replacement with environmentally [...] Read more.

Due to their complete non-biodegradability, current food packages have resulted in major environmental issues. Today’s smart consumer is looking for alternatives that are environmentally friendly, durable, recyclable, and naturally rather than synthetically derived. It is a well-established fact that complete replacement with environmentally friendly packaging materials is unattainable, and bio-based plastics should be the future of the food packaging industry. Natural biopolymers and nanotechnological interventions allow the creation of new, high-performance, light-weight, and environmentally friendly composite materials, which can replace non-biodegradable plastic packaging materials. This review summarizes the recent advancements in smart biogenic packaging, focusing on the shift from conventional to natural packaging, properties of various biogenic packaging materials, and the amalgamation of technologies, such as nanotechnology and encapsulation; to develop active and intelligent biogenic systems, such as the use of biosensors in food packaging. Lastly, challenges and opportunities in biogenic packaging are described, for their application in sustainable food packing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)

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13 pages, 3306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cassava Starch-Based Thermo-Responsive Pb(II)-Imprinted Material: Preparation and Adsorption Performance on Pb(II)

by Meiyuan Lv, Yuhan Du, Tingting Zhang, Xueyu Du and Xueqiong Yin

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 828; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040828 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

Heavy metal pollution is currently an increasing threat to the ecological environment, and the development of novel absorbents with remarkable adsorption performance and cost-effectiveness are highly desired. In this study, a cassava starch-based Pb(II)-imprinted thermo-responsive hydrogel (CPIT) had been prepared by using cassava [...] Read more.

Heavy metal pollution is currently an increasing threat to the ecological environment, and the development of novel absorbents with remarkable adsorption performance and cost-effectiveness are highly desired. In this study, a cassava starch-based Pb(II)-imprinted thermo-responsive hydrogel (CPIT) had been prepared by using cassava starch as the bio-substrate, N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAM) as the thermo-responsive monomer, and Pb(II) as the template ions. Later, a variety of modern techniques including FTIR, DSC, SEM, and TGA were employed to comprehensively analyze the characteristic functional groups, thermo-responsibility, morphology, and thermal stability of CPIT. The obtained material exhibited superior performance in adsorption of Pb(II) and its maximum adsorption capacity was high—up to 114.6 mg/g under optimized conditions. Notably, the subsequent desorption (regeneration) process was fairly convenient by simply rinsing with cold deionized water and the highest desorption efficiency could be achieved as 93.8%. More importantly, the adsorption capacity of regenerated CPIT still maintained 88.2% of the value of starting material even after 10 recyclings. In addition, the excellence of CPIT in selective adsorption of Pb(II) should also be highlighted as its superior adsorption ability (97.9 mg/g) over the other seven interfering metal ions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Polymers and Sustainability)

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12 pages, 10529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Correlation between Dispersion Characteristics at Terahertz Range and Dielectric Permittivity at Low Frequency of Epoxy Resin Nanocomposites

by Ze Lian, Danyang Chen and Shengtao Li

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040827 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1602

Abstract

Despite the extensive research on nanocomposites, a fundamental theory on the interface region is still difficult to achieve. In the present paper, we chose epoxy resin and nano-SiO₂, nano-SiC, nano-ZnO to prepare three kinds of nanocomposites. The dispersion characteristics at the [...] Read more.

Despite the extensive research on nanocomposites, a fundamental theory on the interface region is still difficult to achieve. In the present paper, we chose epoxy resin and nano-SiO₂, nano-SiC, nano-ZnO to prepare three kinds of nanocomposites. The dispersion characteristics at the terahertz range and dielectric permittivity at 1 Hz of epoxy resin-based nanocomposites were investigated. The reduction of the permittivity of nanocomposites at a slight filler concentration was absent at the terahertz range. The measurement results at 1 Hz show that the interaction between nano-SiO₂, nano-SiC particles and epoxy resin was strong with the modification of the silane coupling agent. However, the modification of nano-ZnO particles was invalid. The Lorentz harmonic oscillator model was employed to fit the dispersion characteristics. The relevance between the damping constant and the dielectric permittivity at low frequency was established, indicating that the increase in the damping coefficient results from the restriction of the molecular chain motion by the interfacial region. The present results in this paper reveal a bright prospect of terahertz time-domain spectroscopy in establishing the theory of nanocomposite dielectric. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resins and Composites)

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21 pages, 2354 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Bioanalytical and Biomedical Applications of Polymer Modified Substrates

by Guifeng Liu, Xudong Sun, Xiaodong Li and Zhenxin Wang

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040826 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2409

Abstract

Polymers with different structures and morphology have been extensively used to construct functionalized surfaces for a wide range of applications because the physicochemical properties of polymers can be finely adjusted by their molecular weights, polydispersity and configurations, as well as the chemical structures [...] Read more.

Polymers with different structures and morphology have been extensively used to construct functionalized surfaces for a wide range of applications because the physicochemical properties of polymers can be finely adjusted by their molecular weights, polydispersity and configurations, as well as the chemical structures and natures of monomers. In particular, the specific functions of polymers can be easily achieved at post-synthesis by the attachment of different kinds of active molecules such as recognition ligand, peptides, aptamers and antibodies. In this review, the recent advances in the bioanalytical and biomedical applications of polymer modified substrates were summarized with subsections on functionalization using branched polymers, polymer brushes and polymer hydrogels. The review focuses on their applications as biosensors with excellent analytical performance and/or as nonfouling surfaces with efficient antibacterial activity. Finally, we discuss the perspectives and future directions of polymer modified substrates in the development of biodevices for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conjugated Polymers and /or Oligomers for Organic Electronics and Biological Applications)

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17 pages, 3320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Chemical Modification of Thermoplastic Starch with Poly(L-lactide) and Poly(butylene succinate) for an Effectively Miscible Ternary Blend

by Piyawanee Jariyasakoolroj and Suwabun Chirachanchai

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040825 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2952

Abstract

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is in situ ring-opening polymerized with L-lactide (L-LA) and directly condensed with a poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) prepolymer in an extruder using two different production pathways to demonstrate the concept “like dissolves like” in a miscible poly(lactide)/TPS/PBS (PLA/TPS/PBS) ternary blend. The [...] Read more.

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is in situ ring-opening polymerized with L-lactide (L-LA) and directly condensed with a poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) prepolymer in an extruder using two different production pathways to demonstrate the concept “like dissolves like” in a miscible poly(lactide)/TPS/PBS (PLA/TPS/PBS) ternary blend. The TPS crystalline pattern changes from a V_H-type to an E_H-type after TPS modification with a hydrophobic-PLLA segment. Heteronuclear multiple-bond correlation confirmed the successful formation of PLLA-TPS-PBS copolymers via two different in situ chemical modification pathways (i.e., (I) step-by-step modification and (II) one-pot reaction). All obtained PLLA-TPS-PBS copolymers functioned as the miscible phase, enhancing PLA/PLLA-TPS-PBS/PBS ternary blend miscibility, especially the random structural PLLA-TPS-PBS-II copolymers created in an in situ one-pot reaction. However, the PLLA-TPS-PBS-I copolymers can enhance PBS crystallization only. While the random PLLA-TPS-PBS-II copolymers exhibit a homogeneous multi-phase dispersion and crystallization acceleration in both the PLA and PBS chains. Moreover, the storage modulus level of the PLA/PLLA-TPS-PBS-II/PBS ternary blend remains high with a downward temperature shift in the glass transition region, indicating a stronger and more flexible system. The practical achievement of in situ modified TPS and, consequently, a miscible PLA/PLLA-TPS-PBS/PBS ternary blend with favorable physical properties, reveal its potential application in both compostable and food contact packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)

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17 pages, 9227 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement and Evaluation of Interfacial Adhesion between Active Screen Plasma Surface-Functionalised Carbon Fibres and the Epoxy Substrate

by Yana Liang, Xiaoying Li, Mauro Giorcelli, Alberto Tagliaferro, Costas Charitidis and Hanshan Dong

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040824 - 21 Feb 2022

Viewed by 1565

Abstract

This paper investigated the modification of the advanced active screen plasma (ASP) technology on PAN-derived carbon fibres (CFs) with gas mixtures of N₂-H₂ and N₂-H₂-Ar, separately. A more-than-30% improvement was found in the interfacial shear strength [...] Read more.

This paper investigated the modification of the advanced active screen plasma (ASP) technology on PAN-derived carbon fibres (CFs) with gas mixtures of N₂-H₂ and N₂-H₂-Ar, separately. A more-than-30% improvement was found in the interfacial shear strength (IFSS) between the modified CFs and the epoxy substrate in the resulting composites, as disclosed by single fibre push-out tests. Based on the study of surface morphology, surface chemistry and water-sorption behaviour, the interfacial adhesion enhancement mechanisms were attributed to (1) the increased chemical bonding between the introduced functional groups on the fibre surface and the matrix; (2) the improved surface hydrophilicity of CFs; and (3) the enhanced van der Waals bonding due to the removal of surface contaminations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Surface Modification: From Structure to Properties)

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22 pages, 4696 KiB

Open AccessReview

Understanding the PEDOT:PSS, PTAA and P3CT-X Hole-Transport-Layer-Based Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells

by Qi Bin Ke, Jia-Ren Wu, Chia-Chen Lin and Sheng Hsiung Chang

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040823 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9844

Abstract

The power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of metal-oxide-based regular perovskite solar cells have been higher than 25% for more than 2 years. Up to now, the PCEs of polymer-based inverted perovskite solar cells are widely lower than 23%. PEDOT:PSS thin films, modified PTAA thin [...] Read more.

The power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of metal-oxide-based regular perovskite solar cells have been higher than 25% for more than 2 years. Up to now, the PCEs of polymer-based inverted perovskite solar cells are widely lower than 23%. PEDOT:PSS thin films, modified PTAA thin films and P3CT thin films are widely used as the hole transport layer or hole modification layer of the highlyefficient inverted perovskite solar cells. Compared with regular perovskite solar cells, polymer-based inverted perovskite solar cells can be fabricated under relatively low temperatures. However, the intrinsic characteristics of carrier transportation in the two types of solar cells are different, which limits the photovoltaic performance of inverted perovskite solar cells. Thanks to the low activation energies for the formation of high-quality perovskite crystalline thin films, it is possible to manipulate the optoelectronic properties by controlling the crystal orientation with the different polymer-modified ITO/glass substrates. To achieve the higher PCE, the effects of polymer-modified ITO/glass substrates on the optoelectronic properties and the formation of perovskite crystalline thin films have to be completely understood simultaneously. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Polymers in Energy and Environmental Sciences)

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15 pages, 3276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Investigation on Fatigue Resistance of Notched Long Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials

by Lili Cao, Qipeng Li, Zhongwang Niu and Yuanyuan Zheng

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040822 - 21 Feb 2022

Viewed by 1752

Abstract

A new type of specimen is proposed for further research on the structure of glass-fiber-reinforced resin matrix composite lamina, which holds the potential to significantly improve the fatigue property of materials while having limited effect on the tensile strength. Herein, the fatigue life, [...] Read more.

A new type of specimen is proposed for further research on the structure of glass-fiber-reinforced resin matrix composite lamina, which holds the potential to significantly improve the fatigue property of materials while having limited effect on the tensile strength. Herein, the fatigue life, based on the monotonic tensile test, was simulated utilizing ANSYS and nCode analysis software. The results show that the tensile strength of the local notched fiber specimens is slightly lower than that of the continuous long-fiber specimens. However, when extending the notches’ longitudinal distance, the impact to tensile strength becomes smaller and smaller. The results show that, when the longitudinal distance of the notched fiber is greater than 80 mm, the reduction in tensile strength is less than 0.65%. At the same time, the fatigue property of the specimens is improved considerably. It has been found in this experiment that when the notches’ longitudinal distance is 100 mm, the notches’ length is 1.5 mm, and the notches’ width is 1.75 mm, the fatigue cycles number of the specimens reaches 126,000 cycles, which is about 180% higher than that of the 0-0 type long fiber specimens without notches. This investigation provides a robust foundation and is a compelling basis for further exploration of new fatigue specimens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Joining Technologies for Carbon Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics (CFRTPs))

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11 pages, 17576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Investigation of the Physicochemical Properties of Chars Produced by Hydrothermal Carbonization, Pyrolysis, and Microwave-Induced Pyrolysis of Food Waste

by Moonis Ali Khan, Bassim H. Hameed, Masoom Raza Siddiqui, Zeid A. Alothman and Ibrahim H. Alsohaimi

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040821 - 20 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1812

Abstract

This work presents a comparative study of the physicochemical properties of chars derived by three thermochemical pathways, namely: hydrothermal carbonization, HTC (at 180, 200 and 220 °C), pyrolysis, PY, (at 500, 600 and 700 °C) and microwave assisted pyrolysis, MW (at 300, 450 [...] Read more.

This work presents a comparative study of the physicochemical properties of chars derived by three thermochemical pathways, namely: hydrothermal carbonization, HTC (at 180, 200 and 220 °C), pyrolysis, PY, (at 500, 600 and 700 °C) and microwave assisted pyrolysis, MW (at 300, 450 and 600 W). The mass yield of HTC samples showed a decrease (78.7 to 26.7%) as the HTC temperature increased from 180 to 220 °C. A similar decreasing trend in the mass yield was also observed after PY (28.45 to 26.67%) and MW (56.45 to 22.44%) of the food waste mixture from 500 to 700 °C and 300 to 600 W, respectively. The calorific value analysis shows that the best among the chars prepared by three different heating methods may be ranked according to the decreasing value of the heating value as: PY500, MW300, and HTC180. Similarly, a decreasing trend in H/C values was observed as: PY500 (0.887), MW300 (0.306), and HTC180 (0.013). The scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses revealed that the structure of the three chars was distinct due to the different temperature gradients provided by the thermochemical processes. The results clearly show that the suitable temperature for the HTC and PY of food waste was 180 °C and 500 °C, respectively, while the suitable power for the MW of food waste was 300 W. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Materials from Natural Resources)

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10 pages, 4066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flame Retardancy and Thermal Degradation Behaviors of Thiol-Ene Composites Containing a Novel Phosphorus and Silicon-Containing Flame Retardant

by Fangyi Wu, Xiaohui Bao and Jiangbo Wang

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040820 - 20 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2000

Abstract

In this article, a novel phosphorus and silicon-containing flame retardant (DOPO-V-PA) was synthesized via condensation reaction and then added into thiol-ene (TE) to prepare a flame-retardant composite. The results of cone calorimeter measurement demonstrated that, compared with pure TE, 22.7% and 53.2% reduction [...] Read more.

In this article, a novel phosphorus and silicon-containing flame retardant (DOPO-V-PA) was synthesized via condensation reaction and then added into thiol-ene (TE) to prepare a flame-retardant composite. The results of cone calorimeter measurement demonstrated that, compared with pure TE, 22.7% and 53.2% reduction of TE/DOPO-V-PA (thiol-ene/9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide-vinyltrimethoxysilane-phenyltrimethoxysilane-(3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane copolymer) was found for the peak heat release rate (PHRR) and total heat release (THR), respectively. The thermal degradation of TE composites was investigated by the TGA measurement under non-isothermal conditions, and kinetic parameters were both calculated by the Kissinger and Flynn-Wall-Ozawa methods. It was indicated that the activation energies of TE at conversions exceeding 50% were enhanced by the incorporation of DOPO-V-PA for the whole conversion range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Polymer-Based Flame Retardant Materials)

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14 pages, 7416 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Printing Method of Polymer and Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites (CFRTPCs) for Pipes through Double-Nozzle Five-Axis Printer

by Haiguang Zhang, Xu Lei, Qingxi Hu, Shichao Wu, Mohamed Aburaia, Joamin Gonzalez-Gutierrez and Herfried Lammer

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040819 - 20 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2911

Abstract

The most widely used 3D process, fused deposition modeling (FDM), has insufficient interlayer adhesion due to its layer-by-layer forming method. A support material is also essential for the hollow parts and cantilevers. Moreover, the polymer materials used have limited mechanical properties. These issues [...] Read more.

The most widely used 3D process, fused deposition modeling (FDM), has insufficient interlayer adhesion due to its layer-by-layer forming method. A support material is also essential for the hollow parts and cantilevers. Moreover, the polymer materials used have limited mechanical properties. These issues have restricted the application of FDM in high-performance fields. Continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTPCs) have high mechanical properties and have recently become the focus of research in the field of 3D printing. This paper, using pipe parts as an example, proposes a hybrid of pure polymer (pure PLA used) and CFRTPC (flax fiber pre-impregnated filament) material to develop a printing method based on the outstanding mechanical properties of CFRTPC material. After studying the printing path planning algorithm, the CFRTPC filament is laid along the axial and radial directions on the surface of the polymer base to improve the printed parts’ properties. The method feasibility and algorithm accuracy are verified through the development of five-axis printing equipment with a double nozzle. Through the printed sample’s tensile, compression and bending tests, the results show that the tensile, compressive and bending properties of PLA pipe can be significantly enhanced by laying CFRTPC filament along the axial and radial directions of the pipe. To summarize, the introduction of CFRTPCs greatly improved the mechanical properties of the printed parts, and the implementation of our method provides an effective way to solve the defects of the FDM process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Material and Process Innovations for 3D Printing Applications)

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17 pages, 4763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Unified High-Order Semianalytical Model and Numerical Simulation for Bistable Polymer Composite Structures

by Min Sun, Weiliang Gao, Zheng Zhang, Hongcheng Shen, Yisong Zhou, Huaping Wu and Shaofei Jiang

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040818 - 20 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2128

Abstract

Bistable polymer composite structures are morphing shells that can change shape and maintain two stable configurations. At present, mainly two types of bistable polymer composite structures are being studied: cross-ply laminates and antisymmetric cylindrical shells. This paper proposes a unified semianalytical model based [...] Read more.

Bistable polymer composite structures are morphing shells that can change shape and maintain two stable configurations. At present, mainly two types of bistable polymer composite structures are being studied: cross-ply laminates and antisymmetric cylindrical shells. This paper proposes a unified semianalytical model based on the extensible deformation assumption and nonlinear theory of plates and shells to predict bistability. Moreover, the higher-order theoretical model is extended for better prediction accuracy, while the number of degrees of freedom is not increased; this ensures a lower computational cost. Finally, based on these theoretical models, the main factors affecting the stable characteristic of the two bistable polymer composite structures are determined by comparing the models of various orders. The main challenges in describing the bistable behavior, such as bifurcation points and the curvatures of stable states, are addressed through prediction of the corner transversal displacement in stable configurations. The results obtained from the theoretical model are validated through nonlinear finite element analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Injection Molding)

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15 pages, 4417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cu(II)/Guanidine Functionalized Disiloxane Complex of Supramolecular Structures for Visible Light-Driven Photocatalysis of Congo Red

by Maria E. Fortună, Lucia Pricop, Mirela Zaltariov, Dumitru Popovici, Maria Ignat, Valeria Harabagiu and Bogdan C. Simionescu

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040817 - 20 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1806

Abstract

The present study focuses on the synthesis of a new guanidine-functionalized disiloxane used as a ligand to obtain copper(II) complexes linked through hydrogen bonding into supramolecular structures. A two-step procedure was used to prepare the guanidine functionalized disiloxane ligand. Firstly, the hydrosilylation reaction [...] Read more.

The present study focuses on the synthesis of a new guanidine-functionalized disiloxane used as a ligand to obtain copper(II) complexes linked through hydrogen bonding into supramolecular structures. A two-step procedure was used to prepare the guanidine functionalized disiloxane ligand. Firstly, the hydrosilylation reaction between the siloxane precursor, namely 1,1,3,3-tetramethyldisiloxane (DS), and the allyl glycidyl ether (AGE) was performed in the presence of a platinum catalyst resulting in glycidoxypropyldisiloxane (DS-PMO) intermediary compound. In the second step, DS-PMO derivative was modified with 1,1,3,3-tetramethyl guanidine (TMGu) to obtain the guanidine-functionalized disiloxane ligand (bGu-DS) that was further used for the coordination of copper(II) acetate hydrate. The structures of the ligand and of its Cu(II) complex were confirmed by spectral methods (IR, UV-Vis, NMR, XRF) and correlated with theoretical calculations using semi-empirical PM6 and DFT methods. The copper(II) complex was found to exhibit low optical band gap energy (2.9 eV) and good photocatalytic activity under visible light irradiation in the decomposition of Congo Red (CR). A dye removal efficiency higher than 97% at the catalyst and CR concentrations of 1 and, respectively, 200 mg/L was obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Polymers: Synthesis and Application)

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