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Polymers
Volume 14
Issue 2
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Polymers, Volume 14, Issue 2 (January-2 2022) – 138 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Isotactic polypropylene (PP) composite drawn fibers were prepared using melt extrusion and high-temperature solid-state drawing. Five different fillers were used as reinforcement agents (microtalc, ultrafine talc, wollastonite, attapulgite, and single-wall carbon nanotubes). Better results are observed using needle-like fillers, such as wollastonite and single-wall carbon nanotubes, since high aspect ratio particles tend to align during the drawing process and, thus, contribute to a more symmetrical distribution of stresses. Competitive and synergistic effects occur among the additives and fillers, such as the antioxidant effect being enhanced by the addition of the compatibilizer, while the antioxidant itself acts as a compatibilizing agent. View this paper
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23 pages, 11313 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Mechanical Property Degradation of Outdoor Weather-Exposed Polymers
by Sunwoo Kim, Youngmin Lee, Changhwan Kim and Sunwoong Choi
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020357 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2833
Abstract
It is well known that many polymers are prone to outdoor weathering degradation. Therefore, to ensure the safety and integrity of the structural parts and components made from polymers for outdoor use, their weather-affected mechanical behavior needs to be better understood. In this [...] Read more.
It is well known that many polymers are prone to outdoor weathering degradation. Therefore, to ensure the safety and integrity of the structural parts and components made from polymers for outdoor use, their weather-affected mechanical behavior needs to be better understood. In this study, the critical mechanical property for degradation was identified and modeled into a usable format for use in the virtual analysis. To achieve this, an extensive 4-year outdoor weathering test was carried out on polycarbonate (PC), polypropylene (PP), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) polymers up to a total UV irradiation of 1020 MJ/m2 at a 315~400 nm wavelength. In addition, tensile tests were performed by collecting five specimens for each material at every 60 MJ/m2 interval. With the identification of fracture strain retention as the key performance index for mechanical property degradation, a fracture strain retention function was developed using logistic regression analysis for each polymer. In addition, a method for using fracture strain retention function to establish a mechanical property degradation dataset was proposed and successfully tested by performing weathering FE analysis on the virtual automotive collision behavior of a PC part under intermittent UV irradiation doses. This work showed the potential of using fracture strain retention function to predict the performance of polymeric components undergoing mechanical property degradation upon outdoor weathering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure-Property Relationship of Polymer Materials)
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17 pages, 6137 KiB  
Article
Influence of Extruder’s Nozzle Diameter on the Improvement of Functional Properties of 3D-Printed PLA Products
by Piotr Czyżewski, Dawid Marciniak, Bartosz Nowinka, Michał Borowiak and Marek Bieliński
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020356 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3051
Abstract
The dynamic growth of the use of polymer construction parts manufactured individually and in a small series makes it necessary to improve additive methods in the areas of materials, equipment and processes. By observing selected phenomena occurring during the processing of polymer materials [...] Read more.
The dynamic growth of the use of polymer construction parts manufactured individually and in a small series makes it necessary to improve additive methods in the areas of materials, equipment and processes. By observing selected phenomena occurring during the processing of polymer materials in other production technologies (e.g., extrusion and injection molding), it is possible to obtain solutions that positively affect the final performance properties of the products obtained in additive manufacturing technologies using thermoplastic filament. The aim of this research was to determine the effect of the diameter of the print head nozzle on the spatial structure (path width) and selected mechanical properties of samples produced by the FFF method with PLA material. The obtained results were compared to the samples with a solid structure produced using injection molding technology. In the experiment, the RepRap device for additive manufacturing was used, with the use of nozzles with diameters of 0.2 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.8 mm and 1.2 mm. The test objects were produced with a layer height of 0.2 mm, full filling (100%) and with constant remaining printing parameters. The conducted research allowed us to conclude that the use of layer heights lower than the standard ones gives favorable results for selected mechanical properties. The use of an extruder nozzle diameter of 0.8 mm allows one to obtain a macrostructure with a high degree of interconnection of layers and paths and favorable mechanical properties. The test results can be used in the construction of functional elements that are produced by fused deposition modeling (FDM) and fused filament fabrication (FFF) methods in prototype, unit and small-lot production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Additive Manufacturing)
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17 pages, 4522 KiB  
Article
Processing and Characterization of Bioplastics from the Invasive Seaweed Rugulopteryx okamurae
by Ismael Santana, Manuel Félix, Antonio Guerrero and Carlos Bengoechea
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020355 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4202
Abstract
The seaweed Rugulopteryx okamurae, from the Pacific Ocean, is considered an invasive species in the Mediterranean Sea. In this work, the use of this seaweed is proposed for the development of bio-based plastic materials (bioplastics) as a possible solution to the pollution produced [...] Read more.
The seaweed Rugulopteryx okamurae, from the Pacific Ocean, is considered an invasive species in the Mediterranean Sea. In this work, the use of this seaweed is proposed for the development of bio-based plastic materials (bioplastics) as a possible solution to the pollution produced by the plastic industry. The raw seaweed Rugulopteryx okamurae was firstly blended with glycerol (ratios: 50/50, 60/40 and 70/30), and subsequently, they were processed by injection molding at a mold temperature of 90, 120 and 150 °C. The rheological properties (frequency sweep tests and temperature ramp tests) were obtained for blends before and after processing by injection molding. The functional properties of the bioplastics were determined by the water uptake capacity (WUC) values and further scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results obtained indicated that E’ was always greater than E”, which implies a predominantly elastic behavior. The 70/30 ratio presents higher values for both the viscoelastic moduli and tensile properties than the rest of the systems (186.53 ± 22.80 MPa and 2.61 ± 0.51 MPa, respectively). The WUC decreased with the increase in seaweed in the mixture, ranging from 262% for the 50/50 ratio to 181% for the 70/30 ratio. When carrying out the study on molded bioplastic 70/30 at different temperatures, the seaweed content did not exert a remarkable influence on the final properties of the bioplastics obtained. Thus, this invasive species could be used as raw material for the manufacture of environmentally friendly materials processed by injection molding, with several applications such as food packaging, control–release, etc. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Scientific Advances in STEM: Synergies to Achieve Success, 2nd Volume)
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17 pages, 19820 KiB  
Article
A Study of the Printability of Alginate-Based Bioinks by 3D Bioprinting for Articular Cartilage Tissue Engineering
by Izar Gorroñogoitia, Uzuri Urtaza, Ana Zubiarrain-Laserna, Ana Alonso-Varona and Ane Miren Zaldua
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020354 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3821
Abstract
Three-dimensional bioprinting combined with natural hydrogels is a promising technology for the treatment of several pathologies and different tissue regeneration. One of the most studied tissues is cartilage, a complex and avascular tissue that displays a limited self-repair capacity after injuries. Herein, the [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional bioprinting combined with natural hydrogels is a promising technology for the treatment of several pathologies and different tissue regeneration. One of the most studied tissues is cartilage, a complex and avascular tissue that displays a limited self-repair capacity after injuries. Herein, the development of alginate-based hydrogels and scaffolds containing different microstructure is presented and the printability of alginate by 3D bioprinting is studied. Rheological characterization was performed for the determination of viscosity and viscoelastic properties of hydrogels and mechanical characterization was carried out for the determination of compressive modulus of alginate hydrogels. All these characteristics were correlated with alginate behaviour during 3D bioprinting process. For the printability evaluation filament diameter, perimeter of the pores, area of the pores and shrinkage of alginate scaffolds were measured. The results demonstrate that alginate microstructure has a great influence on its printability and on hydrogels’ physicochemical properties. Molecular weight of alginate determines its viscosity while M/G ratio determines cross-linking conditions and mechanical properties that vary with cross-linking density. These results suggest the importance of an exhaustive control of the viscoelastic and mechanical properties of alginate hydrogels to obtain structures with high resolution and precision. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheology Applied to Polymer Characterization and Processing: A Themed Honorary Issue to Prof. Antxon Santamaria)
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29 pages, 30640 KiB  
Article
The Effect of the Synthesis Method on Physicochemical Properties of Selective Granular Polymer Sorbents
by Alexandra Osipenko and Irina Garkushina
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020353 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1288
Abstract
Investigation of the effect of the polymer synthesis method on physicochemical properties of sorbents is one of the topical problems in the chemistry of macromolecular compounds that has high scientific and practical interest. Determination of the optimal synthesis method will make it possible [...] Read more.
Investigation of the effect of the polymer synthesis method on physicochemical properties of sorbents is one of the topical problems in the chemistry of macromolecular compounds that has high scientific and practical interest. Determination of the optimal synthesis method will make it possible to create sorbents with physicochemical properties that led to the realization of effective sorption. In this work, we investigated the effect of synthesis methods (Pickering emulsion polymerization and precipitation polymerization in solution) of granular polymers based on 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate on physicochemical and sorption properties. The synthesis by Pickering emulsion polymerization led to improvement of the n-propyl alcohol diffusion into the polymer network and to the formation of more homogeneous and structurally stable polymer networks. Creating selective polymer networks by Pickering emulsion polymerization compared to precipitation polymerization in solution led to an increase in porosity, creation of more segregated surface of granules, improvement of binding sites availability at the temperature of 37 °C, and formation of the homogeneous sorption surface with high affinity to target molecules at 25 °C and 37 °C. Selective polymers synthesized by both polymerization methods had the largest values of available sorption surfaces areas for target molecules at 37 °C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)
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18 pages, 7027 KiB  
Communication
Justification of the Use of Composite Metal-Metal-Polymer Parts for Functional Structures
by Nickolay S. Lubimyi, Andrey A. Polshin, Michael D. Gerasimov, Alexander A. Tikhonov, Sergey I. Antsiferov, Boris S. Chetverikov, Vladislav G. Ryazantsev, Julia Brazhnik and İsmail Ridvanov
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020352 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2075
Abstract
The additive manufacturing of metal parts takes up an increasing number of areas of mechanical engineering, but it still remains too expensive for mass use. Based on the experience in the production of combined metal-metal-polymer forming parts of molds, a new method for [...] Read more.
The additive manufacturing of metal parts takes up an increasing number of areas of mechanical engineering, but it still remains too expensive for mass use. Based on the experience in the production of combined metal-metal-polymer forming parts of molds, a new method for the production of composite parts from a metal shell filled with metal-polymer is proposed. As a basis for the study, strength calculations are given by the finite element method for the details of the exoskeleton and a sample of simplified geometry. Comparison of the strength characteristics of parts made of various materials and their combinations showed high strength characteristics of a composite part made of a metal shell and a metal-polymer filler. The metal-metal polymer composite part is distinguished not only by its high strength but also by a significantly lower cost, due to the reduction in the volume of 3D printing with metal. The problems of obtaining composite structures are also discussed. The main problem is the development of a metal-polymer casting technology. The process of filling a thin-walled shell with a metal-polymer causes difficulty. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Metal-Polymer Composites: Formation, Properties and Applications)
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27 pages, 5889 KiB  
Review
Polymer-Based Nanofiber–Nanoparticle Hybrids and Their Medical Applications
by Mingxin Zhang, Wenliang Song, Yunxin Tang, Xizi Xu, Yingning Huang and Dengguang Yu
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020351 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 72 | Viewed by 6374
Abstract
The search for higher-quality nanomaterials for medicinal applications continues. There are similarities between electrospun fibers and natural tissues. This property has enabled electrospun fibers to make significant progress in medical applications. However, electrospun fibers are limited to tissue scaffolding applications. When nanoparticles and [...] Read more.
The search for higher-quality nanomaterials for medicinal applications continues. There are similarities between electrospun fibers and natural tissues. This property has enabled electrospun fibers to make significant progress in medical applications. However, electrospun fibers are limited to tissue scaffolding applications. When nanoparticles and nanofibers are combined, the composite material can perform more functions, such as photothermal, magnetic response, biosensing, antibacterial, drug delivery and biosensing. To prepare nanofiber and nanoparticle hybrids (NNHs), there are two primary ways. The electrospinning technology was used to produce NNHs in a single step. An alternate way is to use a self-assembly technique to create nanoparticles in fibers. This paper describes the creation of NNHs from routinely used biocompatible polymer composites. Single-step procedures and self-assembly methodologies are used to discuss the preparation of NNHs. It combines recent research discoveries to focus on the application of NNHs in drug release, antibacterial, and tissue engineering in the last two years. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrospun Composite Nanofibers for Functional Applications)
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11 pages, 2554 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Characterization of Microwave-Assisted Copolymer Membranes of Poly(vinyl alcohol)-g-starch-methacrylate and Their Evaluation for Gas Transport Properties
by Mallikarjunagouda Patil, Shridhar N. Mathad, Arun Y. Patil, Muhammad Nadeem Arshad, Hajar Saeed Alorfi, Madhu Puttegowda, Abdullah M. Asiri, Anish Khan and Naved Azum
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020350 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2112
Abstract
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is an excellent membrane-forming polymer and can be modified with potato starch and methyl acrylate monomers to obtain copolymers with improved physical and chemical properties. The study presents the synthesis of poly(vinyl alcohol)-g-starch-poly(methyl acrylate) PVA-g-St-g-PMA copolymers using microwave irradiation technique [...] Read more.
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is an excellent membrane-forming polymer and can be modified with potato starch and methyl acrylate monomers to obtain copolymers with improved physical and chemical properties. The study presents the synthesis of poly(vinyl alcohol)-g-starch-poly(methyl acrylate) PVA-g-St-g-PMA copolymers using microwave irradiation technique and potassium persulfate initiator. Solution casting and solvent evaporation methods were adopted for the fabrication of polyvinyl alcohol-g-starch-acrylamide composite membranes. The synthesized graft copolymer was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and thermal analysis. The modified nanocomposite membranes were showed very promising results with the parameters permeability and selectivity. The nanocomposite membranes exhibited the advantages of easy handling and reuse. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Surface Modification: From Structure to Properties)
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16 pages, 9339 KiB  
Article
Effects of Electrospinning Parameter Adjustment on the Mechanical Behavior of Poly-ε-caprolactone Vascular Scaffolds
by Anna A. Dokuchaeva, Tatyana P. Timchenko, Elena V. Karpova, Sergei V. Vladimirov, Ilya A. Soynov and Irina Y. Zhuravleva
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020349 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2471
Abstract
Electrospinning is a perspective method widely suggested for use in bioengineering applications, but the variability in currently available data and equipment necessitates additional research to ascertain the desirable methodology. In this study, we aimed to describe the effects of electrospinning technique alterations on [...] Read more.
Electrospinning is a perspective method widely suggested for use in bioengineering applications, but the variability in currently available data and equipment necessitates additional research to ascertain the desirable methodology. In this study, we aimed to describe the effects of electrospinning technique alterations on the structural and mechanical properties of (1,7)-polyoxepan-2-one (poly-ε-caprolactone, PCL) scaffolds, such as circumferential and longitudinal stress/strain curves, in comparison with corresponding properties of fresh rat aorta samples. Scaffolds manufactured under different electrospinning modes were analyzed and evaluated using scanning electronic microscopy as well as uniaxial longitudinal and circumferential tensile tests. Fiber diameter was shown to be the most crucial characteristic of the scaffold, correlating with its mechanical properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Multiple Application for Novel and Advanced Materials)
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11 pages, 2911 KiB  
Communication
Graphene Oxide versus Carbon Nanofibers in Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Films: Degradation in Simulated Intestinal Environments
by Ariagna L. Rivera-Briso, José Luis Aparicio-Collado, Roser Sabater i Serra and Ángel Serrano-Aroca
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020348 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1850
Abstract
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) is a microbial biodegradable polymer with a broad range of promising industrial applications. The effect of incorporation of low amounts (1% w/w) of carbon nanomaterials (CBNs) such as 1D carbon nanofibers (CNFs) or 2D graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets into the [...] Read more.
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) is a microbial biodegradable polymer with a broad range of promising industrial applications. The effect of incorporation of low amounts (1% w/w) of carbon nanomaterials (CBNs) such as 1D carbon nanofibers (CNFs) or 2D graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets into the PHBV polymer matrix affects its degradation properties, as it is reported here for the first time. The study was performed in simulated gut conditions using two different media: an acidic aqueous medium (pH 6) and Gifu anaerobic medium. The results of this study showed that the incorporation of low amounts of filamentous 1D hydrophobic CNFs significantly increased the degradability of the hydrophobic PHBV after 3 months in simulated intestinal conditions as confirmed by weight loss (~20.5% w/w in acidic medium) and electron microscopy. We can attribute these results to the fact that the long hydrophobic carbon nanochannels created in the PHBV matrix with the incorporation of the CNFs allowed the degradation medium to penetrate at ultrafast diffusion speed increasing the area exposed to degradation. However, the hydrogen bonds formed between the 2D hydrophilic GO nanosheets and the hydrophobic PHBV polymer chains produced a homogeneous composite structure that exhibits lower degradation (weight loss of ~4.5% w/w after three months in acidic aqueous medium). Moreover, the water molecules present in both degradation media can be linked to the hydroxyl (-OH) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups present on the basal planes and at the edges of the GO nanosheets, reducing their degradation potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymeric Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering II)
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13 pages, 3013 KiB  
Article
Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene Coatings Deposited by a Spray Process: Mechanical Properties, Scratch and Wear Behavior
by Najoua Barhoumi, Kaouther Khlifi, Abderrahim Maazouz and Khalid Lamnawar
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020347 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2344
Abstract
To increase the lifetime of metallic molds and protect their surface from wear, a fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) polymer was coated onto a stainless-steel (SS304) substrate, using an air spray process followed by a heat treatment. The microstructural properties of the coating were [...] Read more.
To increase the lifetime of metallic molds and protect their surface from wear, a fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) polymer was coated onto a stainless-steel (SS304) substrate, using an air spray process followed by a heat treatment. The microstructural properties of the coating were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) as well as X-ray diffraction. The mechanical properties and adhesion behavior were analyzed via a nanoindentation test and progressive scratching. According to the results, the FEP coating had a smooth and dense microstructure. The mechanical properties of the coatings, i.e., the hardness and Young’s modulus, were 57 ± 2.35 and 1.56 ± 0.07 GPa, respectively. During scratching, successive delamination stages (initiation, expansion, and propagation) were noticed, and the measured critical loads LC1 (3.36 N), LC2 (6.2 N), and LC3 (7.6 N) indicated a high adhesion of the FEP coating to SS304. The detailed wear behavior and related damage mechanisms of the FEP coating were investigated employing a multi-pass scratch test and SEM in various sliding conditions. It was found that the wear volume increased with an increase in applied load and sliding velocity. Moreover, the FEP coating revealed a low friction coefficient (around 0.13) and a low wear coefficient (3.1 × 10−4 mm3 N m−1). The investigation of the damage mechanisms of the FEP coating showed a viscoelastic plastic deformation related to FEP ductility. Finally, the coating’s resistance to corrosion was examined using electrochemical measurements in a 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. The coating was found to provide satisfactory corrosion protection to the SS304 substrate, as no corrosion was observed after 60 days of immersion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheology and Processing of Polymers)
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22 pages, 4944 KiB  
Article
Fire Performance of FRP-RC Flexural Members: A Numerical Study
by Dexin Duan, Lijun Ouyang, Wanyang Gao, Qingfeng Xu, Weidong Liu and Jian Yang
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020346 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2201
Abstract
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars are increasingly used as a substitute for steel reinforcements in the construction of concrete structures, mainly due to their excellent durability characteristics. When FRP bar-reinforced concrete (referred to as FRP-RC for simplicity) members are used in indoor applications (e.g., [...] Read more.
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars are increasingly used as a substitute for steel reinforcements in the construction of concrete structures, mainly due to their excellent durability characteristics. When FRP bar-reinforced concrete (referred to as FRP-RC for simplicity) members are used in indoor applications (e.g., in buildings), the fire performance of FRP-RC members needs to be appropriately designed to satisfy safety requirements. The bond behavior between the FRP bar and the surrounding concrete governs the composite action between the two materials and the related structural performance of the FRP-RC flexural member that will be affected when exposed to fire. However, there is a lack of reliable numerical models in the literature to quantify the effect of bond degradations of the FRP bar-to-concrete interface at high temperatures on the fire performance of FRP-RC flexural members. This paper presents a three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) model of FRP-RC flexural members exposed to fire and appropriately considers the temperature-dependent bond degradations of the FRP bar-to-concrete interface at high temperatures. In addition, the thermal properties of concrete and FRP bars are considered in the heat transfer analysis to predict the cross-sectional temperatures of the FRP-RC members under fire exposure. In the FE model, the mechanical properties and constitutive laws of concrete and FRP bars at high temperatures in addition to the bond degradations between them have been properly defined, thereby accurately predicting the global and local structural responses of the FRP-RC members under fire exposure. The proposed FE model has been validated by comparing the FE predictions (both temperature and midspan deflection responses during fire exposure) and the full-scale fire test results reported in the literature. The validated FE model is then used to study the effects of bond degradations on the global and local structural responses of the FRP-RC members under fire exposure. It is proved that the temperature-dependent bond degradations need to be considered to achieve accurate predictions of the failure mode and deflection responses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Properties of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites)
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12 pages, 3268 KiB  
Article
Predicting the Mechanical Response of Polyhydroxyalkanoate Biopolymers Using Molecular Dynamics Simulations
by Karteek K. Bejagam, Nevin S. Gupta, Kwan-Soo Lee, Carl N. Iverson, Babetta L. Marrone and Ghanshyam Pilania
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020345 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2749
Abstract
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have emerged as a promising class of biosynthesizable, biocompatible, and biodegradable polymers to replace petroleum-based plastics for addressing the global plastic pollution problem. Although PHAs offer a wide range of chemical diversity, the structure–property relationships in this class of polymers remain [...] Read more.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have emerged as a promising class of biosynthesizable, biocompatible, and biodegradable polymers to replace petroleum-based plastics for addressing the global plastic pollution problem. Although PHAs offer a wide range of chemical diversity, the structure–property relationships in this class of polymers remain poorly established. In particular, the available experimental data on the mechanical properties is scarce. In this contribution, we have used molecular dynamics simulations employing a recently developed forcefield to predict chemical trends in mechanical properties of PHAs. Specifically, we make predictions for Young’s modulus, and yield stress for a wide range of PHAs that exhibit varying lengths of backbone and side chains as well as different side chain functional groups. Deformation simulations were performed at six different strain rates and six different temperatures to elucidate their influence on the mechanical properties. Our results indicate that Young’s modulus and yield stress decrease systematically with increase in the number of carbon atoms in the side chain as well as in the polymer backbone. In addition, we find that the mechanical properties were strongly correlated with the chemical nature of the functional group. The functional groups that enhance the interchain interactions lead to an enhancement in both the Young’s modulus and yield stress. Finally, we applied the developed methodology to study composition-dependence of the mechanical properties for a selected set of binary and ternary copolymers. Overall, our work not only provides insights into rational design rules for tailoring mechanical properties in PHAs, but also opens up avenues for future high throughput atomistic simulation studies geared towards identifying functional PHA polymer candidates for targeted applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Modeling of Polymers)
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17 pages, 7598 KiB  
Article
DNA/Magnetic Nanoparticles Composite to Attenuate Glass Surface Nanotopography for Enhanced Mesenchymal Stem Cell Differentiation
by Ilnur Ishmukhametov, Svetlana Batasheva, Elvira Rozhina, Farida Akhatova, Rimma Mingaleeva, Artem Rozhin and Rawil Fakhrullin
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020344 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2700
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have extensive pluripotent potential to differentiate into various cell types, and thus they are an important tool for regenerative medicine and biomedical research. In this work, the differentiation of hTERT-transduced adipose-derived MSCs (hMSCs) into chondrocytes, adipocytes and osteoblasts on [...] Read more.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have extensive pluripotent potential to differentiate into various cell types, and thus they are an important tool for regenerative medicine and biomedical research. In this work, the differentiation of hTERT-transduced adipose-derived MSCs (hMSCs) into chondrocytes, adipocytes and osteoblasts on substrates with nanotopography generated by magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) and DNA was investigated. Citrate-stabilized MNPs were synthesized by the chemical co-precipitation method and sized around 10 nm according to microscopy studies. It was shown that MNPs@DNA coatings induced chondrogenesis and osteogenesis in hTERT-transduced MSCs. The cells had normal morphology and distribution of actin filaments. An increase in the concentration of magnetic nanoparticles resulted in a higher surface roughness and reduced the adhesion of cells to the substrate. A glass substrate modified with magnetic nanoparticles and DNA induced active chondrogenesis of hTERT-transduced MSC in a twice-diluted differentiation-inducing growth medium, suggesting the possible use of nanostructured MNPs@DNA coatings to obtain differentiated cells at a reduced level of growth factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Matrix Composites: Synthesis, Characterization and Simulation)
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11 pages, 2074 KiB  
Article
Stability Improvement of Perovskite Solar Cells by the Moisture-Resistant PMMA:Spiro-OMeTAD Hole Transport Layer
by Shaohua Ma, Shangzheng Pang, Hang Dong, Xiaoping Xie, Gang Liu, Peng Dong, Dawei Liu, Weidong Zhu, He Xi, Dazheng Chen, Chunfu Zhang and Yue Hao
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020343 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3438
Abstract
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) based on the 2,2′,7,7′-tetrakis(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9′-spirobifluorene (spiro-OMeTAD) hole transport layer have exhibited leading device performance. However, the instability caused by this organic function layer is a very important limiting factor to the further development of PSCs. In this work, the spiro-OMeTAD [...] Read more.
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) based on the 2,2′,7,7′-tetrakis(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9′-spirobifluorene (spiro-OMeTAD) hole transport layer have exhibited leading device performance. However, the instability caused by this organic function layer is a very important limiting factor to the further development of PSCs. In this work, the spiro-OMeTAD is doped with polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), which is further used as the hole transport layer to improve the device stability. It is shown that the PMMA can effectively improve the moisture and oxygen resistance of spiro-OMeTAD, which leads to improved device stability by separating the perovskite layer from moisture and oxygen. The device efficiency can maintain 77% of the original value for PSCs with the PMMA-doped spiro-OMeTAD hole transport layer, under a natural air environment (RH = 40%) for more than 80 days. The results show that the moisture- and oxygen-resistant PMMA:spiro-OMeTAD hole transport layer is effective at improving the device performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Polymers for Metal Halide Perovskite Optoelectronic Devices)
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23 pages, 4627 KiB  
Article
Adsorption of Cationic Contaminants by Cyclodextrin Nanosponges Cross-Linked with 1,2,3,4-Butanetetracarboxylic Acid and Poly(vinyl alcohol)
by Ekkachai Martwong, Santi Chuetor and Jatupol Junthip
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020342 - 16 Jan 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2645
Abstract
Cationic organic pollutants (dyes and pesticides) are mainly hydrosoluble and easily contaminate water and create a serious problem for biotic and abiotic species. The elimination of these dangerous contaminants from water was accomplished by adsorption using cyclodextrin nanosponges. These nanosponges were elaborated by [...] Read more.
Cationic organic pollutants (dyes and pesticides) are mainly hydrosoluble and easily contaminate water and create a serious problem for biotic and abiotic species. The elimination of these dangerous contaminants from water was accomplished by adsorption using cyclodextrin nanosponges. These nanosponges were elaborated by the cross-linking between 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid and β-cyclodextrin in the presence of poly(vinyl alcohol). Their physicochemical characteristics were characterized by gravimetry, acid-base titration, TGA, 13C NMR, ATR-FTIR, Raman, X-ray diffraction, and Stereomicroscopy. The BP5 nanosponges displayed 68.4% yield, 3.31 mmol/g COOH groups, 0.16 mmol/g β-CD content, 54.2% swelling, 97.0% PQ removal, 96.7% SO removal, and 98.3% MG removal for 25 mg/L of initial concentration. The pseudo-second-order model was suitable for kinetics using 180 min of contact time. Langmuir isotherm was suitable for isotherm with the maximum adsorption of 120.5, 92.6, and 64.9 mg/g for paraquat (PQ), safranin (SO), and malachite green (MG) adsorption, respectively. Finally, the reusability performance after five regeneration times reached 94.1%, 91.6%, and 94.6% for PQ, SO, and MG adsorption, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer Materials for Water Purification and Wastewater Treatment)
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36 pages, 7540 KiB  
Article
Influence of the Cross-Sectional Shape and Corner Radius on the Compressive Behaviour of Concrete Columns Confined by FRP and Stirrups
by Yang Wei, Yang Xu, Gaofei Wang, Xunyu Cheng and Guofen Li
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020341 - 16 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2133
Abstract
Axial compression tests were carried out on 72 FRP (fiber reinforced polymer)–stirrup composite-confined concrete columns. Stirrups ensure the residual bearing capacity and ductility after the FRP fractures. To reduce the effect of stress concentration at the corners of the confined square-section concrete columns [...] Read more.
Axial compression tests were carried out on 72 FRP (fiber reinforced polymer)–stirrup composite-confined concrete columns. Stirrups ensure the residual bearing capacity and ductility after the FRP fractures. To reduce the effect of stress concentration at the corners of the confined square-section concrete columns and improve the restraint effect, an FRP–stirrup composite-confined concrete structure with rounded corners is proposed. Different corner radii of the stirrup and outer FRP were designed, and the corner radius of the stirrup was adjusted accurately to meet the designed corner radius of the outer FRP. The cross-section of the specimens gradually changed from square to circular as the corner radius increased. The influence of the cross-sectional shape and corner radius on the compressive behaviour of FRP–stirrup composite-confined concrete was analysed. An increase in the corner radius can cause the strain distribution of the FRP to be more uniform and strengthen the restraint effect. The larger the corner radius of the specimen, the better the improvement of mechanical properties. The strength of the circular section specimen was greatly improved. In addition, the test parameters also included the FRP layers, FRP types and stirrup spacing. With the same corner radius, increasing the number of FRP layers or densifying the stirrup spacing effectively improved the mechanical properties of the specimens. Finally, a database of FRP–stirrup composite-confined concrete column test results with different corner radii was established. The general calculation models were proposed, respectively, for the peak points, ultimate points and stress–strain models that are applicable to FRP-, stirrup- and FRP–stirrup-confined concrete columns with different cross-sectional shapes under axial compression. Full article
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31 pages, 13265 KiB  
Article
Properties of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)/Polycaprolactone Polymer Mixtures Reinforced by Cellulose Nanocrystals: Experimental and Simulation Studies
by Marina I. Voronova, Darya L. Gurina and Oleg V. Surov
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020340 - 16 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1962
Abstract
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)/polycaprolactone (PHBV/PCL) polymer mixtures reinforced by cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have been obtained. To improve the CNC compatibility with the hydrophobic PHBV/PCL matrix, the CNC surface was modified by amphiphilic polymers, i.e., polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyacrylamide (PAM). The polymer composites were characterized [...] Read more.
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)/polycaprolactone (PHBV/PCL) polymer mixtures reinforced by cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have been obtained. To improve the CNC compatibility with the hydrophobic PHBV/PCL matrix, the CNC surface was modified by amphiphilic polymers, i.e., polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyacrylamide (PAM). The polymer composites were characterized by FTIR, DSC, TG, XRD, microscopy, BET surface area, and tensile testing. The morphological, sorption, thermal, and mechanical properties of the obtained composites have been studied. It was found out that with an increase in the CNC content in the composites, the porosity of the films increased, which was reflected in an increase in their specific surface areas and water sorption. An analysis of the IR spectra confirms that hydrogen bonds can be formed between the CNC hydroxyl- and the –CO– groups of PCL and PHBV. The thermal decomposition of CNC in the PHBV/PCL/CNC composites starts at a much higher temperature than the decomposition of pure CNC. It was revealed that CNCs can either induce crystallization and the polymer crystallite growth or act as a compatibilizer of a mixture of the polymers causing their amorphization. The CNC addition significantly reduces the elongation and strength of the composites, but changes Young’s modulus insignificantly, i.e., the mechanical properties of the composites are retained under conditions of small linear deformations. A molecular-dynamics simulation of several systems, starting from simplest binary (solvent-polymer) and finishing with multi-component (CNC—polymer mixture—solvent) systems, has been made. It is concluded that the surface modification of CNCs with amphiphilic polymers makes it possible to obtain the CNC composites with hydrophobic polymer matrices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites Reinforced by Cellulose Nanocrystals: Production, Properties, and Application)
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17 pages, 3961 KiB  
Article
Reducing Magnesium within Seawater Used in Mineral Processing to Improve Water Recovery and Rheological Properties When Dewatering Clay-Based Tailings
by Matías Jeldres, Norman Toro, Sandra Gallegos, Pedro Robles, Iván Salazar, Phillip D. Fawell and Ricardo I. Jeldres
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020339 - 16 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1925
Abstract
In areas where access to water for mineral processing is limited, the direct use of seawater in processing has been considered as an alternative to the expense of its desalination. However, efficient flotation of copper sulfides from non-valuable phases is best achieved at [...] Read more.
In areas where access to water for mineral processing is limited, the direct use of seawater in processing has been considered as an alternative to the expense of its desalination. However, efficient flotation of copper sulfides from non-valuable phases is best achieved at a pH > 10.5, and raising the pH of seawater leads to magnesium precipitates that adversely affect subsequent tailings dewatering. Seawater pre-treatment with lime can precipitate the majority of magnesium present, with these solids then being removed by filtration. To understand how such treatment may aid tailings dewatering, treated seawater (TSw) was mixed with raw seawater (Rsw) at different ratios, analyzing the impact on the flocculated settling rate, aggregate size as measured by focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM), and vane yield stress for two synthetic clay-based tailings. A higher proportion of Tsw (10 mg/L Mg2+) led to larger aggregates and higher settling rates at a fixed dosage, with FBRM suggesting that higher calcium concentrations in Tsw may also favor fines coagulation. The yield stress of concentrated suspensions formed after flocculation decreased with higher proportions of Tsw, a consequence of lower flocculant demand and the reduced presence of precipitates; while the latter is a minor phase by mass, their high impact on rheology reflects a small particle size. Reducing magnesium concentrations in seawater in advance of use in processing offers advantages in the water return from thickening and subsequent underflow transport. However, this may not require complete removal, with blending Tsw and Rsw an option to obtain acceptable industrial performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)
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13 pages, 2445 KiB  
Article
Reinforced Epoxy Composites Modified with Functionalized Graphene Oxide
by Anton Mostovoy, Andrey Shcherbakov, Andrey Yakovlev, Sergey Arzamastsev and Marina Lopukhova
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020338 - 16 Jan 2022
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 2958
Abstract
The possibility of using graphene oxide as a modifying additive for polymer fiber-reinforced composites based on epoxy resin and basalt roving has been studied. The content of graphene oxide in the system has been experimentally selected, which has the best effect on the [...] Read more.
The possibility of using graphene oxide as a modifying additive for polymer fiber-reinforced composites based on epoxy resin and basalt roving has been studied. The content of graphene oxide in the system has been experimentally selected, which has the best effect on the physico-mechanical properties of the obtained polymer composite material. The efficiency of the modification of the graphene oxide surface with APTES finishing additives and aminoacetic acid, which provides chemical interaction at the polymer matrix–filler interface, has been considered. The influence of graphene oxide and functionalizing additives on the polymer curing process was investigated using the thermometric method and differential scanning calorimetry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Manufacturing and Performance)
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16 pages, 9024 KiB  
Article
Effective Stiffness of Fused Deposition Modeling Infill Lattice Patterns Made of PLA-Wood Material
by Enrique Cuan-Urquizo, Alberto Álvarez-Trejo, Andrés Robles Gil, Viridiana Tejada-Ortigoza, Carmita Camposeco-Negrete, Esmeralda Uribe-Lam and Cecilia D. Treviño-Quintanilla
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020337 - 15 Jan 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2453
Abstract
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) uses lattice arrangements, known as infill, within the fabricated part. The mechanical properties of parts fabricated via FDM are dependent on these infill patterns, which make their study of great relevance. One of the advantages of FDM is the [...] Read more.
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) uses lattice arrangements, known as infill, within the fabricated part. The mechanical properties of parts fabricated via FDM are dependent on these infill patterns, which make their study of great relevance. One of the advantages of FDM is the wide range of materials that can be employed using this technology. Among these, polylactic acid (PLA)-wood has been recently gaining attention as it has become commercially available. In this work, the stiffness of two different lattice structures fabricated from PLA-wood material using FDM are studied: hexagonal and star. Rectangular samples with four different infill densities made of PLA-wood material were fabricated via FDM. Samples were subjected to 3-point bending to characterize the effective stiffness and their sensitivity to shear deformation. Lattice beams proved to be more sensitive to shear deformations, as including the contribution of shear in the apparent stiffness of these arrangements leads to more accurate results. This was evaluated by comparing the effective Young’s modulus characterized from 3-point bending using equations with and without shear inclusion. A longer separation between supports yielded closer results between both models (~41% for the longest separation tested). The effective stiffness as a function of the infill density of both topologies showed similar trends. However, the maximum difference obtained at low densities was the hexagonal topology that was ~60% stiffer, while the lowest difference was obtained at higher densities (star topology being stiffer by ~20%). Results for stiffness of PLA-wood samples were scattered. This was attributed to the defects at the lattice element level inherent to the material employed in this study, confirmed via micro-characterization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing in Wood Science)
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15 pages, 5635 KiB  
Article
Charge Carriers Relaxation Behavior of Cellulose Polymer Insulation Used in Oil Immersed Bushing
by Yu Shang, Qiang Liu, Chen Mao, Sen Wang, Fan Wang, Zheng Jian, Shilin Shi and Jian Hao
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020336 - 15 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1324 | Correction
Abstract
Cellulose insulation polymer material is widely used in oil immersed bushing. Moisture is one of the important reasons for the deterioration of cellulose polymer insulation, which seriously threatens the safe and stable operation of bushing. It is significant to study the polarization and [...] Read more.
Cellulose insulation polymer material is widely used in oil immersed bushing. Moisture is one of the important reasons for the deterioration of cellulose polymer insulation, which seriously threatens the safe and stable operation of bushing. It is significant to study the polarization and depolarization behavior of oil-immersed cellulose polymer insulation with different moisture condition under higher voltage. Based on polarization/depolarization current method and charge difference method, the polarization/depolarization current, interfacial polarization current and electrical conductivity of cellulose polymer under different DC voltages and humidity were obtained. Based on molecular-dynamics simulation, the effect of moisture on cellulose polymer insulation was analyzed. The results show that the polarization and depolarization currents become larger with the increase in DC voltage and moisture. The higher applied voltage will accelerate the charge carrier motion. The ionization of water molecules will produce more charge carriers. Thus, high DC voltage and moisture content will increase the interface polarization current. Increased moisture content results in more charge carriers ionized by water molecules. In addition, the invasion of moisture will reduce the band width of cellulose polymer and enhance its electrostatic potential, so as to improve its overall electrical conductivity. This paper provides a reference for analyzing the polarization characteristics of charge carriers in cellulose polymer insulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites for Electrical Insulation)
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16 pages, 2692 KiB  
Article
Comparative Characterization and Identification of Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate Producing Bacteria with Subsequent Optimization of Polymer Yield
by Aidana Rysbek, Yerlan Ramankulov, Askar Kurmanbayev, Agnieszka Richert and Sailau Abeldenov
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020335 - 15 Jan 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1904
Abstract
In this work, the strains Bacillus megaterium RAZ 3, Azotobacter chrocococcum Az 3, Bacillus araybhattay RA 5 were used as an effective producer of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate P(3HB). The purpose of the study was to isolate and obtain an effective producer of P(3HB) isolated from [...] Read more.
In this work, the strains Bacillus megaterium RAZ 3, Azotobacter chrocococcum Az 3, Bacillus araybhattay RA 5 were used as an effective producer of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate P(3HB). The purpose of the study was to isolate and obtain an effective producer of P(3HB) isolated from regional chestnut soils of northern Kazakhstan. This study demonstrates the possibility of combining the protective system of cells to physical stress as a way to optimize the synthesis of PHA by strains. Molecular identification of strains and amplification of the phbC gene, transmission electron microscope (TEM), extracted and dried PHB were subjected to Fourier infrared transmission spectroscopy (FTIR). The melting point of the isolated P(3HB) was determined. The optimal concentration of bean broth for the synthesis of P(3HB) for the modified type of Bacillus megaterium RAZ 3 was 20 g/L, at which the dry weight of cells was 25.7 g/L−1 and P(3HB) yield of 13.83 g/L−1, while the percentage yield of P(3HB) was 53.75%. The FTIR spectra of the extracted polymer showed noticeable peaks at long wavelengths. Based on a proof of concept, this study demonstrates encouraging results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Materials from Natural Resources)
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11 pages, 1859 KiB  
Article
Exact Solution for Viscoelastic Flow in Pipe and Experimental Validation
by Ekaterina Vachagina, Nikolay Dushin, Elvira Kutuzova and Aidar Kadyirov
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020334 - 15 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1622
Abstract
The development of analytical methods for viscoelastic fluid flows is challenging. Currently, this problem has been solved for particular cases of multimode differential rheological equations of media state (Giesekus, the exponential form of Phan-Tien-Tanner, eXtended Pom-Pom). We propose a parametric method that yields [...] Read more.
The development of analytical methods for viscoelastic fluid flows is challenging. Currently, this problem has been solved for particular cases of multimode differential rheological equations of media state (Giesekus, the exponential form of Phan-Tien-Tanner, eXtended Pom-Pom). We propose a parametric method that yields solutions without additional assumptions. The method is based on the parametric representation of the unknown velocity functions and the stress tensor components as a function of coordinate. Experimental flow visualization based on the SIV (smoke image velocimetry) method was carried out to confirm the obtained results. Compared to the Giesekus model, the experimental data are best predicted by the eXtended Pom-Pom model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Simulation and Processing)
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17 pages, 5579 KiB  
Article
Improved Wear-Resistant Performance of Epoxy Resin Composites Using Ceramic Particles
by Amal Nassar, Mona Younis, Mohamed Ismail and Eman Nassar
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020333 - 15 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2462
Abstract
This work investigated the effects of using a new fabrication technique to prepare polymer composite on the wear-resistant performance of epoxy resin composites under dry friction conditions. Polymer composite samples with different weight contents of silicon carbide (SiC) particles were manufactured. This paper [...] Read more.
This work investigated the effects of using a new fabrication technique to prepare polymer composite on the wear-resistant performance of epoxy resin composites under dry friction conditions. Polymer composite samples with different weight contents of silicon carbide (SiC) particles were manufactured. This paper addresses the wear behavior of the obtained samples. With the suggested technique, the samples were prepared from epoxy/silicon carbide particles using a layer of thin kraft paper to prevent the sedimentation of the ceramic particles and to control the weight content of ceramic in the polymer. Kraft paper was used as a layer in the polymer composite. The hardness, wear resistance, and water absorption capacity of the produced epoxy composite samples prepared using the kraft paper technique were evaluated. The morphology of epoxy composite samples showed a significant improvement in the ceramic distribution and enhancement of interface bonding between ceramic and the polymer. The hardness values of the developed polymer composites were enhanced by up to 42.8%, which was obtained at 18 wt.% SiC particles. Increasing the ceramic content in the epoxy also led to the enhancement of wear resistance compared with pure epoxy. The results of the microstructure study also showed that the kraft paper layers helped in maintaining the distribution of the ceramic particles according to the previously specified content in each layer in the sample. Wear tests showed that the wear rate of the polymer composite decreased with the increase in the ceramic content. This study provides a new recycling method for using old kraft paper in polymer composite manufacturing to improve the distribution of ceramic particles in the polymer matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability and Degradation of Polymeric Materials)
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17 pages, 20300 KiB  
Article
Methyl Orange-Doped Polypyrrole Promoting Growth of ZIF-8 on Cellulose Fiber with Tunable Tribopolarity for Triboelectric Nanogenerator
by Qiang Li, Xianhui An and Xueren Qian
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020332 - 14 Jan 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2959
Abstract
Cellulose fiber (CelF) is a biodegradable and renewable material with excellent performance but negligible triboelectric polarizability. Methods to enhance and rationally tune the triboelectric properties of CelF are needed to further its application for energy harvesting. In this work, methyl-orange-doped polypyrrole (MO-PPy) was [...] Read more.
Cellulose fiber (CelF) is a biodegradable and renewable material with excellent performance but negligible triboelectric polarizability. Methods to enhance and rationally tune the triboelectric properties of CelF are needed to further its application for energy harvesting. In this work, methyl-orange-doped polypyrrole (MO-PPy) was in situ coated on CelF as a mediating layer to promote the growth of metal–organic framework ZIF-8 and to construct a cellulose-based triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG). The results showed that a small amount of MO-PPy generated in situ significantly promoted the growth of ZIF-8 on CelF, and the ZIF-8 deposition ratio was able to increase from 7.8% (ZIF-8/CelF) to 31.8% (ZIF-8/MO-PPy@CelF). ZIF-8/MO-PPy@CelF remained electrically conductive and became triboelectrically positive, and the triboelectricity’s positivity was improved with the increase in the ZIF-8 deposition ratio. The cellulose-based TENG constructed with ZIF-8/MO-PPy@CelF (31.8% ZIF-8 deposition ratio) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) could generate a transfer charge of 47.4 nC, open-circuit voltage of 129 V and short-circuit current of 6.8 μA—about 4 times higher than those of ZIF-8/CelF (7.8% ZIF-8 deposition ratio)—and had excellent cycling stability (open-circuit voltage remained almost constant after 10,000 cycles). MO-PPy not only greatly facilitated the growth of ZIF-8 on CelF, but also acted as an electrode active phase for TENG. The novel TENG based on ZIF-8/MO-PPy@CelF composite has cheerful prospects in many applications, such as self-powered supercapacitors, sensors and monitors, smart pianos, ping-pong tables, floor mats, etc. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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14 pages, 4893 KiB  
Article
Development of Flexible Biceps Tremors Sensing Chip of PVDF Fibers with Nano-Silver Particles by Near-Field Electrospinning
by Chung-Kun Yen, Karishma Dutt, Yu-Syuan Yao, Wen-Jeng Wu, Yow-Ling Shiue, Cheng-Tang Pan, Chi-Wen Chen and Wen-Fan Chen
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020331 - 14 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2108
Abstract
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and AgNO3/PVDF composite piezoelectric fibers were prepared using near-field electrospinning technology. The prepared fibers are attached to the electrode sheet and encapsulated with polydimethylsiloxane to create an energy acquisition device and further fabricated into a dynamic sensing element. [...] Read more.
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and AgNO3/PVDF composite piezoelectric fibers were prepared using near-field electrospinning technology. The prepared fibers are attached to the electrode sheet and encapsulated with polydimethylsiloxane to create an energy acquisition device and further fabricated into a dynamic sensing element. The addition of AgNO3 significantly increased the conductivity of the solution from 40.33 μS/cm to 883.59 μS/cm, which in turn made the fiber drawing condition smoother with the increase of high voltage electric field and reduced the fiber wire diameter size from 0.37 μm to 0.23 μm. The tapping test shows that the voltage signal can reach ~0.9 V at a frequency of 7 Hz, and the energy conversion efficiency is twice that of the PVDF output voltage. The addition of AgNO3 effectively enhances the molecular bonding ability, which effectively increases the piezoelectric constants of PVDF piezoelectric fibers. When the human body is exercised for a long period of time and the body is overloaded, the biceps muscle is found to produce 8 to 16 tremors/second through five arm flexion movements. The voltage output of the flexible dynamic soft sensor is between 0.7–0.9 V and shows an orderly alternating current waveform of voltage signals. The sensor can be used to detect muscle tremors after high-intensity training and to obtain advance information about changes in the symptoms of fasciculation, allowing for more accurate diagnosis and treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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17 pages, 4470 KiB  
Article
Facile Synthesis of Fluorinated Polysilazanes and Their Durable Icephobicity on Rough Al Surfaces
by Tien N. H. Lo, Sung Woo Hong, Ha Soo Hwang and In Park
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020330 - 14 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1805
Abstract
Superhydrophobic Al surfaces with excellent durability and anti-icing properties were fabricated by coating dual-scale rough Al substrates with fluorinated polysilazane (FPSZ). Flat Al plates were etched using an acidic solution, followed by immersion in boiling water to generate hierarchical micro-nano structures on their [...] Read more.
Superhydrophobic Al surfaces with excellent durability and anti-icing properties were fabricated by coating dual-scale rough Al substrates with fluorinated polysilazane (FPSZ). Flat Al plates were etched using an acidic solution, followed by immersion in boiling water to generate hierarchical micro-nano structures on their surfaces. The FPSZ coatings were synthesized by grafting 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyltrimethoxysilane (FAS-17), a fluoroalkyl silane), onto methylpolysilazane, an organopolysilazane (OPSZ) backbone. The high water contact angle (175°) and low sliding angle (1.6°) of the FPSZ-coated sample with an FAS-17 content of 17.3 wt% promoted the efficient removal of a frozen ice column with a low ice adhesion strength of 78 kPa at −20.0 °C (70% relative humidity), which was 4.3 times smaller than that of an OPSZ-coated surface. The FPSZ-coated Al surface suppressed ice nucleation, leading to a decrease in ice nucleation temperature from −19.5 to −21.9 °C and a delay in freezing time from 334 to 4914 s at −19.0 °C compared with the OPSZ-coated Al surface. Moreover, after 40 icing–melting cycles the freezing temperature of a water droplet on the FPSZ-coated Al surface remained unchanged, whereas that on the FAS-17-coated Al surface increased from −22.3 to −20.7 °C. Therefore, the durability of the polymeric FPSZ coating was superior to that of the FAS-17 monolayer coating. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Coatings II)
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17 pages, 5391 KiB  
Article
Succinyl-κ-carrageenan Silver Nanotriangles Composite for Ammonium Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor
by Mohd Hafiz Abu Bakar, Nur Hidayah Azeman, Nadhratun Naiim Mobarak, Nur Afifah Ahmad Nazri, Tengku Hasnan Tengku Abdul Aziz, Ahmad Rifqi Md Zain, Norhana Arsad and Ahmad Ashrif A. Bakar
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020329 - 14 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1609
Abstract
This research investigates the physicochemical properties of biopolymer succinyl-κ-carrageenan as a potential sensing material for NH4+ Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) sensor. Succinyl-κ-carrageenan was synthesised by reacting κ-carrageenan with succinic anhydride. FESEM analysis shows succinyl-κ-carrageenan has an even and featureless topology [...] Read more.
This research investigates the physicochemical properties of biopolymer succinyl-κ-carrageenan as a potential sensing material for NH4+ Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) sensor. Succinyl-κ-carrageenan was synthesised by reacting κ-carrageenan with succinic anhydride. FESEM analysis shows succinyl-κ-carrageenan has an even and featureless topology compared to its pristine form. Succinyl-κ-carrageenan was composited with silver nanoparticles (AgNP) as LSPR sensing material. AFM analysis shows that AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan was rougher than AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan, indicating an increase in density of electronegative atom from oxygen compared to pristine κ-carrageenan. The sensitivity of AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan LSPR is higher than AgNP-κ-carrageenan LSPR. The reported LOD and LOQ of AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan LSPR are 0.5964 and 2.7192 ppm, respectively. Thus, AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan LSPR has a higher performance than AgNP-κ-carrageenan LSPR, broader detection range than the conventional method and high selectivity toward NH4+. Interaction mechanism studies show the adsorption of NH4+ on κ-carrageenan and succinyl-κ-carrageenan were through multilayer and chemisorption process that follows Freundlich and pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)
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16 pages, 2984 KiB  
Article
Quasi-Static Multifunctional Characterization of 3D-Printed Carbon Fiber Composites for Compressive-Electrical Properties
by Ritesh Ghimire and Frank Liou
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020328 - 14 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1998
Abstract
Multifunctional carbon fiber composites provide promising results such as high strength-to-weight ratio, thermal and electrical conductivity, high-intensity radiated field, etc. for aerospace applications. Tailoring the electrical and structural properties of 3D-printed composites is the critical step for multifunctional performance. This paper presents a [...] Read more.
Multifunctional carbon fiber composites provide promising results such as high strength-to-weight ratio, thermal and electrical conductivity, high-intensity radiated field, etc. for aerospace applications. Tailoring the electrical and structural properties of 3D-printed composites is the critical step for multifunctional performance. This paper presents a novel method for evaluating the effects of the coating material system on the continuous carbon fiber strand on the multifunctional properties of 3D-printed composites and the material’s microstructure. A new method was proposed for the quasi-static characterization of the Compressive-Electrical properties on the additively manufactured continuous carbon fiber solid laminate composites. In this paper, compressive and electrical conductivity tests were simultaneously conducted on the 3D-printed test coupons at ambient temperature. This new method modified the existing method of addressing monofunctional carbon fiber composites by combining the monofunctionality of two or more material systems to achieve the multifunctional performance on the same component, thereby reducing the significant weight. The quasi-static multifunctional properties reported a maximum compressive load of 4370 N, ultimate compressive strength of 136 MPa, and 61.2 G Ohms of electrical resistance. The presented method will significantly reduce weight and potentially replace the bulky electrical wires in spacecraft, unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), and aircraft. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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