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Polymers, Volume 14, Issue 13 (July-1 2022) – 240 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Imaging the three-dimensional morphology of large surface areas (tens of microns) at a resolution that allows us to understand the surface quality and its modification is challenging. As a proof of principle, PET films were characterized to demonstrate the capabilities of ptychography using X-ray free-electron lasers, currently developed at FLASH at DESY (Hamburg, Germany), to image macroscopic samples. In combination with scanning electron microscopy and complemented by surface chemistry studies using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, this new technique was used to study the effects of two different plasma treatments on the surfaces of PET films. View this paper
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23 pages, 5301 KiB  
Article
Flexible Composite Films Made of EMAANa+ Ionomer: Evaluation of the Influence of Piezoelectric Particles on the Thermal and Mechanical Properties
by Sandra P. S. Tita, Fernão D. Magalhães, Diana Paiva, Maria A. Z. Bertochi, Guilhermina F. Teixeira, Ana L. Pires, André M. Pereira and José R. Tarpani
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2755; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132755 - 05 Jul 2022
Viewed by 1965
Abstract
Studies that aim to produce flexible films of composite materials based on ionomers-PZT, and volume fractions lower than 10% PZT, in order to monitor damage in aeronautical structures are seldom investigated. The growing emphasis on the use of polymers capable of self-healing after [...] Read more.
Studies that aim to produce flexible films of composite materials based on ionomers-PZT, and volume fractions lower than 10% PZT, in order to monitor damage in aeronautical structures are seldom investigated. The growing emphasis on the use of polymers capable of self-healing after damage or activation by heating has motivated the application of self-healing ionomers as polymeric matrices in composites with piezoelectric particles aiming to monitor damage. Flexible composite films were developed based on the self-healing polymer matrix Surlyn® 8940 ionomer (DuPontTM—Wilmington, DE, USA) and PZT particles (connectivity 2–3) in volume fractions of 1, 3, 5 and 7%, with thickness around 50–100 µm. The choice of PZT volume fractions followed the preliminary requirement that establishes a final density, which is lower or at least close to the density of the materials used in aeronautical structures. Since the application of composites based on epoxy resin/carbon fibers has been increasing in the aeronautical segment, this material (with density lower than 1500 kg/m3) was chosen as a reference for the present work. Thus, due to self-healing (a characteristic of the matrix Surlyn® 8940) combined with recyclability, high flexibility and low thickness, the flexible composite films showed advantages to be applied on aeronautical structures, which present complex geometries and low-density materials. The manufactured films were characterized by SEM, XRD, DMA and mechanical tensile tests. The results were discussed mainly in terms of the volume fraction of PZT. X-ray diffraction patterns showed coexistent rhombohedral and tetragonal phases in the PZT particles-dispersed composite, which can potentialize the alignment of ferroelectric domains during polarization under strong electrical field, enhancing dielectric and piezoelectric properties toward sensing applications. DMA and tensile testing results demonstrated that the addition of PZT particles did not impair either dynamic or quasi-static mechanical performance of the flexible composite films. It was concluded that the PZT volume fraction should be lower than 3% because, for higher values, the molecular mobility of the polymer would suffer significant reductions. These findings, combined with the high flexibility and low density of the ceramic particle-filled thermoplastic polymer, render the developed flexible composite film a very promising candidate for strain and damage sensing in aeronautical structures. Full article
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12 pages, 4396 KiB  
Communication
Characterization of 3D Printed Metal-PLA Composite Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications
by Irene Buj-Corral, Héctor Sanz-Fraile, Anna Ulldemolins, Aitor Tejo-Otero, Alejandro Domínguez-Fernández, Isaac Almendros and Jorge Otero
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2754; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132754 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2760
Abstract
Three-dimensional printing is revolutionizing the development of scaffolds due to their rapid-prototyping characteristics. One of the most used techniques is fused filament fabrication (FFF), which is fast and compatible with a wide range of polymers, such as PolyLactic Acid (PLA). Mechanical properties of [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional printing is revolutionizing the development of scaffolds due to their rapid-prototyping characteristics. One of the most used techniques is fused filament fabrication (FFF), which is fast and compatible with a wide range of polymers, such as PolyLactic Acid (PLA). Mechanical properties of the 3D printed polymeric scaffolds are often weak for certain applications. A potential solution is the development of composite materials. In the present work, metal-PLA composites have been tested as a material for 3D printing scaffolds. Three different materials were tested: copper-filled PLA, bronze-filled PLA, and steel-filled PLA. Disk-shaped samples were printed with linear infill patterns and line spacing of 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8 mm, respectively. The porosity of the samples was measured from cross-sectional images. Biocompatibility was assessed by culturing Human Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal on the surface of the printed scaffolds. The results showed that, for identical line spacing value, the highest porosity corresponded to bronze-filled material and the lowest one to steel-filled material. Steel-filled PLA polymers showed good cytocompatibility without the need to coat the material with biomolecules. Moreover, human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells differentiated towards osteoblasts when cultured on top of the developed scaffolds. Therefore, it can be concluded that steel-filled PLA bioprinted parts are valid scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and Their Application in 3D Printing)
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29 pages, 2547 KiB  
Article
Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Shape Memory Polymers Programmed below Glass Transition Temperature
by Kartikey Shahi and Velmurugan Ramachandran
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2753; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132753 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1984
Abstract
An epoxy-based shape memory polymer (SMP) is synthesized and examined for its deterioration in shape fixity due to springback and isothermal viscoelastic recovery at different ambient temperatures. Shape fixity depends not only on material properties but also on programming conditions. A constitutive finite [...] Read more.
An epoxy-based shape memory polymer (SMP) is synthesized and examined for its deterioration in shape fixity due to springback and isothermal viscoelastic recovery at different ambient temperatures. Shape fixity depends not only on material properties but also on programming conditions. A constitutive finite deformation model is incorporated to predict the behavior of the proposed SMP and find maximum shape fixity. A programming approach is followed in which, in contrast to hot programming, the SMPs are neither heated before deformation nor cooled afterward but are deformed at ambient temperature and then stress-relaxed. The proximity of the programming temperature to the glass transition temperature plays a crucial role in determining the shape fixity of SMP. It has been found that the SMP with a glass transition temperature of 42.9 °C can achieve maximum shape fixity of 92.25% when programmed at 23 °C with 100 min stress relaxation time. Thermal contraction and dynamic tests are performed in the Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA) to determine structural relaxation properties and distinguish the programming temperature in the cold, warm or hot temperature zone. The shape memory tests are carried out using temperature-controlled UTM to determine the shape fixity and shape recovery of SMP. The SMPs are subjected to a full thermomechanical cycle with different stress relaxation times and programming temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Modeling of Polymers)
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23 pages, 6647 KiB  
Review
Agri-Food Wastes for Bioplastics: European Prospective on Possible Applications in Their Second Life for a Circular Economy
by Annamaria Visco, Cristina Scolaro, Manuela Facchin, Salim Brahimi, Hossem Belhamdi, Vanessa Gatto and Valentina Beghetto
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2752; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132752 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6752
Abstract
Agri-food wastes (such as brewer’s spent grain, olive pomace, residual pulp from fruit juice production, etc.) are produced annually in very high quantities posing a serious problem, both environmentally and economically. These wastes can be used as secondary starting materials to produce value-added [...] Read more.
Agri-food wastes (such as brewer’s spent grain, olive pomace, residual pulp from fruit juice production, etc.) are produced annually in very high quantities posing a serious problem, both environmentally and economically. These wastes can be used as secondary starting materials to produce value-added goods within the principles of the circular economy. In this context, this review focuses on the use of agri-food wastes either to produce building blocks for bioplastics manufacturing or biofillers to be mixed with other bioplastics. The pros and cons of the literature analysis have been highlighted, together with the main aspects related to the production of bioplastics, their use and recycling. The high number of European Union (EU)-funded projects for the valorisation of agri-food waste with the best European practices for this industrial sector confirm a growing interest in safeguarding our planet from environmental pollution. However, problems such as the correct labelling and separation of bioplastics from fossil ones remain open and to be optimised, with the possibility of reuse before final composting and selective recovery of biomass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Progress in Recycling of (Bio)Polymers and Composites)
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24 pages, 4812 KiB  
Review
An Overview of In Vitro Drug Release Methods for Drug-Eluting Stents
by Navideh Abbasnezhad, Nader Zirak, Stéphane Champmartin, Mohammadali Shirinbayan and Farid Bakir
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2751; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132751 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2635
Abstract
The drug release profile of drug-eluting stents (DESs) is affected by a number of factors, including the formulation, design, and physicochemical properties of the utilized material. DES has been around for twenty years and despite its widespread clinical use, and efficacy in lowering [...] Read more.
The drug release profile of drug-eluting stents (DESs) is affected by a number of factors, including the formulation, design, and physicochemical properties of the utilized material. DES has been around for twenty years and despite its widespread clinical use, and efficacy in lowering the rate of target lesion restenosis, it still requires additional development to reduce side effects and provide long-term clinical stability. Unfortunately, for analyzing these implants, there is still no globally accepted in vitro test method. This is owing to the stent’s complexity as well as the dynamic arterial compartments of the blood and vascular wall. The former is the source of numerous biological, chemical, and physical mechanisms that are more commonly observed in tissue, lumen, and DES. As a result, universalizing bio-relevant apparatus, suitable for liberation testing of such complex implants is difficult. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the methods used for in vitro release testing of DESs. Aspects related to the correlation of the release profiles in the cases of in vitro and in vivo are also addressed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymeric Biomaterial)
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14 pages, 5011 KiB  
Article
Incorporation of Fluorescent Fluorinated Methacrylate Nano-Sized Particles into Chitosan Matrix Formed as a Membranes or Beads
by Anna Szwajca, Sandra Juszczyńska, Maciej Jarzębski and Elżbieta Baryła-Pankiewicz
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132750 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1550
Abstract
Fluorescent particles are of particular interest as probes and active agents for biomedical, pharmaceutical, and food applications. Here, we present two strategies for incorporation of core-shell acrylic fluorescent nanoparticles (NPs) with Rhodamine B (RhB) as a dye into a chitosan (CS) matrix. We [...] Read more.
Fluorescent particles are of particular interest as probes and active agents for biomedical, pharmaceutical, and food applications. Here, we present two strategies for incorporation of core-shell acrylic fluorescent nanoparticles (NPs) with Rhodamine B (RhB) as a dye into a chitosan (CS) matrix. We selected two variants of NPsRhB immobilisation in a CS membrane and biopolymeric CS beads. Modification of the method for production of the biopolymer cover/transporter of nanoparticles allowed two series of hydrogels loaded with nanoparticles to be obtained with a similar concentration of the aqueous solution of the nanoparticles. Microscopic analysis showed that the NPs were nonuniformly distributed in millimetre-sized CS beads, as well as membranes, but the fluorescence signal was strong. The composition of CS layers loaded with nanoparticles (CS/NPsRhB) showed water vapour barrier properties, characterised by the contact angle of 71.8°. Finally, we incorporated NPsRhBCS beads into a gelatine matrix to check their stability. The results confirmed good stability of the NPsRhBCS complex system, and no dye leakage was observed from the beads and the membranes. The proposed complex system demonstrated promising potential for further use in bioimaging and, thus, for the development of advanced diagnostic tools. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Analysis of Natural Polymers)
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18 pages, 4667 KiB  
Article
Fe-Immobilised Catechol-Based Hypercrosslinked Polymer as Heterogeneous Fenton Catalyst for Degradation of Methylene Blue in Water
by Thanchanok Ratvijitvech
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2749; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132749 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1932
Abstract
Clean water is one of the sustainable development goals. Organic dye is one of the water pollutants affecting water quality. Hence, the conversion of dyes to safer species is crucial for water treatment. The Fenton reaction using Fe as a catalyst is a [...] Read more.
Clean water is one of the sustainable development goals. Organic dye is one of the water pollutants affecting water quality. Hence, the conversion of dyes to safer species is crucial for water treatment. The Fenton reaction using Fe as a catalyst is a promising process. However, homogeneous catalysts are normally sensitive, difficult to separate, and burdensome to reuse. Therefore, a catechol-based hypercrosslinked polymer (catechol-HCP) was developed as an inexpensive solid support for Fe (catechol-HCP-Fe) and applied as a heterogenous Fenton catalyst. The good interaction of the catechol moiety with Fe, as well as the porous structure, simple preparation, low cost, and high stability of catechol-HCP, make it beneficial for Fe-loading in the polymer and Fenton reaction utilisation. The catechol-HCP-Fe demonstrated good catalytic activity for methylene blue (MB) degradation in a neutral pH. Complete decolouration of 100 ppm MB could be observed within 25 min. The rate of reaction was influenced by H2O2 concentration, polymer dose, MB concentration, pH, and temperature. The catechol-HCP-Fe could be reused for at least four cycles. The dominant reactive species of the reaction was considered to be singlet oxygen (1O2), and the plausible mechanism of the reaction was proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Wastewater Treatment Applications Using Polymeric Materials)
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15 pages, 2846 KiB  
Article
Interfacial Dipole poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) Modification Triggers Simultaneous Band Alignment and Passivation for Air-Stable Perovskite Solar Cells
by He Xi, Zhicheng Song, Yonggang Guo, Weijia Zhu, Lisong Ding, Weidong Zhu, Dazheng Chen and Chunfu Zhang
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2748; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132748 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1835
Abstract
To promote the performance of perovskite solar cells (PSCs), its theoretical power conversion efficiency (PCE) and high stability, elaborative defect passivation, and interfacial engineering at the molecular level are required to regulate the optoelectric properties and charge transporting process at the perovskite/hole transport [...] Read more.
To promote the performance of perovskite solar cells (PSCs), its theoretical power conversion efficiency (PCE) and high stability, elaborative defect passivation, and interfacial engineering at the molecular level are required to regulate the optoelectric properties and charge transporting process at the perovskite/hole transport layer (HTL) interfaces. Herein, we introduce for the first time a multifunctional dipole polymer poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEOz) between the perovskite and Spiro-OMeTAD HTL in planar n-i-p PSCs, which advances the PSCs toward both high efficiency and excellent stability by stimulating three beneficial effects. First, the ether–oxygen unshared electron pairs in PEOz chemically react with unsaturated Pb2+ on the perovskite surfaces by forming a strong Pb–O bond, which effectively reduces the uncoordinated defects on the perovskite surfaces and enhances the absorption ability of the resulting PSCs. Second, the dipole induced by PEOz at the perovskite/HTL interface can decrease the HOMO and LUMO level of Spiro-OMeTAD and optimize the band alignment between these layers, thereby suppressing the interfacial recombination and accelerating the hole transport/extraction ability in the cell. Third, the hygroscopic PEOz thin film can protect perovskite film from water erosion by absorbing the water molecules before perovskite does. Finally, the PEOz-modified PSC exhibits an optimized PCE of 21.86%, with a high short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 24.88 mA/cm2, a fill factor (FF) of 0.79, and an open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 1.11 V. The unencapsulated devices also deliver excellent operation stability over 300 h in an ambient atmosphere with a humidity of 30~40% and more than 10 h under thermal stress. Full article
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10 pages, 3253 KiB  
Article
In Silico Study: Combination of α-Mangostin and Chitosan Conjugated with Trastuzumab against Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2
by Sandra Megantara, Nasrul Wathoni, Ahmed Fouad Abdelwahab Mohammed, Cecep Suhandi, Maryam H. Ishmatullah and Melisa F. F. D. Putri
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2747; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132747 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1646
Abstract
Breast cancer is a type of cancer with the highest prevalence worldwide. Almost 10–30% of breast cancer cases are diagnosed as positive for HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2). The currently available treatment methods still exhibit many shortcomings such as a high [...] Read more.
Breast cancer is a type of cancer with the highest prevalence worldwide. Almost 10–30% of breast cancer cases are diagnosed as positive for HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2). The currently available treatment methods still exhibit many shortcomings such as a high incidence of side effects and treatment failure due to resistance. This in silico study aims to simulate α-mangostin and chitosan combination conjugated to trastuzumab formulation against HER2 as an effort to improve breast cancer patient therapy. This molecular docking simulation was done through using PatchDock Server. The materials used including the two-dimensional structure of α-mangostin, chitosan, and sodium tripolyphosphate from the PubChem database; trastuzumab FASTA sequence from the DrugBank database; and HER2 structure obtained from a crystal complex with PDB ID: 1N8Z. The results indicated that the particle of α-mangostin and chitosan combinations interacted mostly with the crystallizable fragment (Fc region) of trastuzumab in the conjugation process. The conjugation of trastuzumab to the particle of a combination of α-mangostin and chitosan resulted in the greatest increase in the binding score of the smallest-sized particles (50 Å) with an increase in the score of 3828 and also gave the most similar mode of interaction with trastuzumab. However, the conjugation of trastuzumab eliminated the similarity of the mode of interaction and increased the value of atomic contact energy. Thus, a cominbation of α-mangostin and chitosan conjugated to a trastuzumab formulation was predicted can increase the effectiveness of breast cancer therapy at a relatively small particle size but with the consequence of decreasing atomic contact energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymers: Recent Progress and New Perspectives II)
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19 pages, 4363 KiB  
Article
Influence of Raster Pattern on Residual Stress and Part Distortion in FDM of Semi-Crystalline Polymers: A Simulation Study
by Anto Antony Samy, Atefeh Golbang, Eileen Harkin-Jones, Edward Archer, Monali Dahale, Marion McAfee, Behzad Abdi and Alistair McIlhagger
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2746; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132746 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1904
Abstract
In fused deposition modelling (FDM) based on the selected raster pattern, the developed internal thermal residual stresses can vary considerably affecting the mechanical properties and leading to distinct part distortions. This phenomenon is more pronounced in semi-crystalline than amorphous polymers due to crystallisation. [...] Read more.
In fused deposition modelling (FDM) based on the selected raster pattern, the developed internal thermal residual stresses can vary considerably affecting the mechanical properties and leading to distinct part distortions. This phenomenon is more pronounced in semi-crystalline than amorphous polymers due to crystallisation. Hence, this study focuses on the simulation of the FDM process of a semi-crystalline polymer (polypropylene) with raster patterns such as line (90°/90°), line (0°/90°), zigzag (45°/45°), zigzag (45°/−45°), and concentric from Cura (slicing software). The simulation provides visualisation and prediction of the internally developed thermal residual stresses and resulting warpage with printing time and temperature. The sample with a line (90°/90°) raster pattern is considered as the reference sample in order to compare the relative levels of residual stress and warpage in the other printed/simulated samples. Among the considered raster patterns, the concentric pattern displays the lowest amount of warpage (5.5% decrease) along with a significant drop in residual stress of 21%. While the sample with a zigzag (45°/−45°) pattern showed the highest increase of 37% in warpage along with a decrease of 9.8% in residual stresses. The sample with a zigzag (45°/45°) pattern, exhibited a considerable increase of 16.2% in warpage with a significant increase of 31% in residual stresses. Finally, the sample with a line (0°/90°) raster pattern displayed an increase of 24% increase in warpage with an increase of 6.6% in residual stresses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiscale Simulation and Modeling in Polymers)
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18 pages, 11424 KiB  
Article
Study on Increasing the Binding Amount of Rubber and Reinforcing Filler by Adding Aromatic Solvent Oil
by Xiaoqing Li, Zhonghang Fang, Xinmin Shen, Qin Yin, Zhiyuan Chen, Qunzhang Tu and Ming Pan
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2745; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132745 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1829
Abstract
The binding amount of rubber and reinforcing filler directly affects the quality of rubber products. The effect of aromatic solvent oil (S-150) on the binding amount of rubber and reinforcing filler was studied. In order to determine the suitability of rubber after adding [...] Read more.
The binding amount of rubber and reinforcing filler directly affects the quality of rubber products. The effect of aromatic solvent oil (S-150) on the binding amount of rubber and reinforcing filler was studied. In order to determine the suitability of rubber after adding S-150, the curing characteristics, physical performance and tensile properties of rubber samples were tested and analyzed. Meanwhile, the microstructure of the composite was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The test results showed that the binding amount of rubber and reinforcing filler was increased after adding S-150. The density and Shore A hardness were decreased. When carbon black was 80 phr, after adding 40 phr of S-150, the rebound resilience of rubber increased by 13% on average, and the elongation at break increased by 88% on average. When white carbon black was between 10-70 phr, after adding 65 phr of S-150, the rebound resilience of rubber increased by 9% on average, and the elongation at break increased by 51% on average. Modulus at 100% and tensile strength were decreased. Meanwhile, it could be judged from the microstructure results that the reticulation space inside the rubber was increased, the agglomerate particles were relatively uniform, and no bubbles or holes were observed. The mechanism that S-150 could increase the binding amount of rubber was analyzed according to the like-dissolves-like principle. This research achievement could lead to improvements in the quality of rubber products and promote their practical application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rubbers)
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11 pages, 1285 KiB  
Article
Potentiality of Utilizing Woven Pineapple Leaf Fibre for Polymer Composites
by Agung Efriyo Hadi, Januar Parlaungan Siregar, Tezara Cionita, Mohd Bakeri Norlaila, Muhammad Amin Mohd Badari, Agustinus Purna Irawan, Jamiluddin Jaafar, Teuku Rihayat, Ramli Junid and Deni Fajar Fitriyana
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2744; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132744 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2254
Abstract
Pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) is one of the natural fibres with the highest tensile strength and cellulose content. This has led to the investigation of the application of short, long, random mats, and unidirectional types as reinforcement agents, but there is limited study [...] Read more.
Pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) is one of the natural fibres with the highest tensile strength and cellulose content. This has led to the investigation of the application of short, long, random mats, and unidirectional types as reinforcement agents, but there is limited study on the usage of woven PALF in composites. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the potential of this woven PALF in reinforcing epoxy resin (ER) composite as well as the effect of layering numbers and fibre orientations on the mechanical properties of the product. This involved using hand lay-up and press moulding with a hydraulic machine to produce the composite and specimen test while 2, 3, and 4 layers of woven PALF were used as the layering number parameter. Moreover, the warp and weft direction of the woven PALF were used to simulate the effect of fibre orientation in composites. The findings showed that the 3-layer woven PALF performed better in terms of tensile and flexural properties than the other layers. It was also discovered that the orientation of the composite with warp direction is slightly higher than the weft direction. Furthermore, the scanning electron microscopic (SEM) method was applied to analyse the tensile fracture of the composites and the results showed that the interfacial adhesion of the 3-layer woven PALF successfully transferred the load to the epoxy resin matrix due to its reinforcement role in composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Biocomposite Reinforced by Natural Fibers)
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15 pages, 4477 KiB  
Article
Modification of the Maxwell–Wagner Heterogeneous Dielectric Model for Heterogeneous Polymers and Emulsions
by Jiangbo Qian, Shimi Yan, Zhenyu Li, Ling Yu, Xinlei Wang, Zhijie Zhang, Junze Sun and Xu Han
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2743; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132743 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1509
Abstract
In heterogeneous polymers and emulsions, the volume fraction of the discrete phase and the frequency of electromagnetic waves affect the accuracy of the dielectric model. The integral method was used to modify the Maxwell–Wagner (M–W) heterogeneous dielectric theory, and a new model for [...] Read more.
In heterogeneous polymers and emulsions, the volume fraction of the discrete phase and the frequency of electromagnetic waves affect the accuracy of the dielectric model. The integral method was used to modify the Maxwell–Wagner (M–W) heterogeneous dielectric theory, and a new model for the complex dielectric constant of polymers and emulsions was established. The experimental data were compared with the results of the M–W heterogeneous dielectric integral modification model and other theoretical models for different frequencies and volume fractions of the discrete phase. We discovered that with a decreasing volume fraction of the discrete phase, the dominant frequency range of the integral modification model expanded. When the volume fraction of the discrete phase is 10%, the dominant frequency range reaches 3 GHz. When the volume fraction of the discrete phase is 1%, the dominant frequency range reaches 4 GHz. When the volume fraction of the discrete phase is 0.06%, the dominant frequency range of the real part reaches 9.6 GHz, and the dominant frequency range of the imaginary part reaches 7.2 GHz. These results verify the advantages of the M–W modification model, which provides a theoretical basis to study the dielectric properties of polymers and emulsions, as well as for microwave measurement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Surfaces and Interfaces)
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16 pages, 4920 KiB  
Article
Synthesis, Characterization, and Physical Properties of Maleic Acid-Grafted Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)/Cellulose Nanocrystal Composites
by Yu-Jia Hung, Ming-Yen Chiang, En-Tze Wang and Tzong-Ming Wu
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2742; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132742 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1901
Abstract
New sequences of nanocomposites including numerous maleic acid-grafted poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (g-PBAT) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) were efficaciously fabricated via transesterification and polycondensation processes with the covalent bonds between the polymer and reinforcing fillers. The grafting interaction of maleic acid onto PBAT was successfully [...] Read more.
New sequences of nanocomposites including numerous maleic acid-grafted poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (g-PBAT) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) were efficaciously fabricated via transesterification and polycondensation processes with the covalent bonds between the polymer and reinforcing fillers. The grafting interaction of maleic acid onto PBAT was successfully demonstrated using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra. The morphology of g-PBAT/CNC nanocomposites was investigated by wide-angle X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Both results indicate that the CNC was randomly dispersed into the g-PBAT polymer matrix. The storage modulus at −80 and 25 °C was significantly enhanced with the incorporation of CNC into g-PBAT matrix. The crystallization rate of g-PBAT/CNC nanocomposites increased as the loading of CNC increased. With the incorporation of 3 wt% CNC, the half-time for crystallization of the g-PBAT/CNC composite decreased about 50~80% as compared with the same isothermal crystallization of pure polymer matrix. All water vapor permeation (WVP) values of all g-PBAT/CNC nanocomposites decreased as the loading of CNC increased. The decrease in WVP may be attributed to the addition of stiff CNC, causing the increase on the permeation route in the water molecules in the g-PBAT polymer matrix. Full article
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14 pages, 1153 KiB  
Article
Potential of the Liquid Fermentation of Fishery Waste by Paenibacillus elgii for Metalloprotease Production
by Chien Thang Doan, Thi Ngoc Tran, Minh Trung Nguyen, Huu Kien Nguyen, Thi Kim Thi Tran, Thi Hanh Nguyen, Thi Phuong Hanh Tran, Van Bon Nguyen, Anh Dzung Nguyen and San-Lang Wang
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2741; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132741 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1609
Abstract
This study attempted to use fishery processing wastes to produce protease by Paenibacillus elgii TKU051. Of the tested wastes, tuna head powder (THP) was found to be the most effective carbon and nitrogen (C/N) source, and the optimal conditions were as follows: 0.811% [...] Read more.
This study attempted to use fishery processing wastes to produce protease by Paenibacillus elgii TKU051. Of the tested wastes, tuna head powder (THP) was found to be the most effective carbon and nitrogen (C/N) source, and the optimal conditions were as follows: 0.811% THP, 0.052% K2HPO4, 0.073% MgSO4, initial pH of 8.96, incubation temperature of 31.4 °C, and incubation time of 3.092 days to achieve the maximum protease activity of 2.635 ± 0.124 U/mL. A protease with a molecular weight of 29 kDa was purified and biochemically characterized. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed an amino acid sequence of STVHYSTR of P. elgii TKU051 protease, suggesting that the enzyme may belong to the M4 family of metalloproteases. The optimal activity of the enzyme was achieved at 60 °C and pH 8. P. elgii TKU051 protease was strongly inhibited by ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and 1,10-phenanthroline, indicating its precise metalloprotease property. P. elgii TKU051 protease displayed the activity toward casein and raw fishery wastes such as tuna heads, tuna viscera, shrimp heads, and squid pens. Finally, the purified P. elgii TKU051 protease could improve the free-radical scavenging activity of fishery wastes. In short, P. elgii TKU051 has potential application in eco-friendly approaches to efficiently convert fishery wastes to metalloprotease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Materials from Natural Resources)
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11 pages, 3931 KiB  
Article
Morphological Evolution and Damping Properties of Dynamically Vulcanized Butyl Rubber/Polypropylene Thermoplastic Elastomers
by Qi Tang, Shiteng Hu, Lijing Han, Chengzhong Zong and Jujie Sun
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2740; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132740 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1849
Abstract
We successfully prepared butyl rubber (IIR)/polypropylene (PP) thermoplastic vulcanizate (IIR/PP-TPV) for shock-absorption devices by dynamic vulcanization (DV) using octyl-phenolic resin as a vulcanizing agent and studied the morphological evolution and properties during DV. We found that the damping temperature region of the IIR/PP-TPV [...] Read more.
We successfully prepared butyl rubber (IIR)/polypropylene (PP) thermoplastic vulcanizate (IIR/PP-TPV) for shock-absorption devices by dynamic vulcanization (DV) using octyl-phenolic resin as a vulcanizing agent and studied the morphological evolution and properties during DV. We found that the damping temperature region of the IIR/PP-TPV broadened with the disappearance of the glass transition temperature (Tg) in the PP phase, which is ascribed to the improvement of compatibility between the IIR and PP with increasing DV time. As DV progresses, the size of the dispersed IIR particles and the PP crystalline phase decreases, leading to the formation of a sea–island morphology. After four cycles of recycling, the retention rates of tensile strength and elongation at break of the IIR/PP-TPV reached 88% and 86%, respectively. The size of the IIR cross-linking particles in the IIR/PP-TPV becomes larger after melt recombination, and the continuous PP phase provides excellent recyclability. Significantly, the prepared IIR/PP-TPV exhibits excellent recyclability, high elasticity, and good damping property. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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23 pages, 6763 KiB  
Article
Quality Prediction and Abnormal Processing Parameter Identification in Polypropylene Fiber Melt Spinning Using Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning and Deep Learning Algorithms
by Amit Kumar Gope, Yu-Shu Liao and Chung-Feng Jeffrey Kuo
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2739; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132739 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2213
Abstract
Melt spinning machines must be set up according to the process parameters that result in the best end product quality. In this study, artificial intelligence algorithms were employed to create a system that detects abnormal processing parameters and suggests strategies to improve quality. [...] Read more.
Melt spinning machines must be set up according to the process parameters that result in the best end product quality. In this study, artificial intelligence algorithms were employed to create a system that detects abnormal processing parameters and suggests strategies to improve quality. Polypropylene (PP) was selected as the experimental material, and the quality achieved by adjusting the melt spinning machine’s processing parameter settings was used as the basis for judgement. The processing parameters included screw temperature, gear pump temperature, die head temperature, screw speed, gear pump speed, and take-up speed as the six control factors. The four quality characteristics included fineness, breaking strength, elongation at break, and elastic energy modulus. In the first part of our study, we applied fast deep-learning characteristic grid calculations on a 440-item historical data set to train a deep learning neural network and determine methods for multi-quality optimization. In the second part, with the best processing parameters as a benchmark, and given abnormal quality data derived from processing parameter settings deviating from these optimal values, several machine learning and deep learning methods were compared in their ability to find the settings responsible for the abnormal data, which was randomly split into a 210-item training data set and a 210-item verification data set. The random forest method proved to be the best at identifying responsible parameter settings, with accuracy rates of single and double identification classifications together of 100%, for single factor classification of 98.3%, and for double factor classification of 96.0%, thereby confirming that the diagnostic method proposed in this study can effectively predict product abnormality and find the parameter settings responsible for product abnormality. Full article
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12 pages, 3588 KiB  
Article
N-(2-Arylethyl)-2-methylprop-2-enamides as Versatile Reagents for Synthesis of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers
by Monika Sobiech, Dorota Maciejewska and Piotr Luliński
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2738; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132738 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1177
Abstract
The paper describes the formation of six aromatic N-(2-arylethyl)-2-methylprop-2-enamides with various substituents in benzene ring, viz., 4-F, 4-Cl, 2,4-Cl2, 4-Br, 4-OMe, and 3,4-(OMe)2 from 2-arylethylamines and methacryloyl chloride in ethylene dichloride with high yields (46–94%). The structure of the [...] Read more.
The paper describes the formation of six aromatic N-(2-arylethyl)-2-methylprop-2-enamides with various substituents in benzene ring, viz., 4-F, 4-Cl, 2,4-Cl2, 4-Br, 4-OMe, and 3,4-(OMe)2 from 2-arylethylamines and methacryloyl chloride in ethylene dichloride with high yields (46–94%). The structure of the compounds was confirmed by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, IR, and HR-MS. Those compounds were obtained to serve as functionalized templates for the fabrication of molecularly imprinted polymers followed by the hydrolysis of an amide linkage. In an exemplary experiment, the imprinted polymer was produced from N-(2-(4-bromophenyl)ethyl)-2-methylprop-2-enamide and divinylbenzene, acting as cross-linker. The hydrolysis of 2-(4-bromophenyl)ethyl residue proceeded and the characterization of material including SEM, EDS, 13C CP MAS NMR, and BET on various steps of preparation was carried out. The adsorption studies proved that there was a high affinity towards the target biomolecules tyramine and L-norepinephrine, with imprinting factors equal to 2.47 and 2.50, respectively, when compared to non-imprinted polymer synthesized from methacrylic acid and divinylbenzene only. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Molecularly Imprinted Polymers)
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15 pages, 10910 KiB  
Article
Inclusion/Exclusion Behaviors of Small Molecules during Crystallization of Polymers in Miscible PLLA/TAIC Blend
by Lu Yin, Jiayao Wang, Taotao Lin and Jichun You
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2737; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132737 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1473
Abstract
In this work, PLLA/TAIC has been taken as a model system to investigate the inclusion and exclusion of small molecules during the crystallization of polymers in their miscible blend. Our results indicate that it is the growth rate and diameter of PLLA spherulites [...] Read more.
In this work, PLLA/TAIC has been taken as a model system to investigate the inclusion and exclusion of small molecules during the crystallization of polymers in their miscible blend. Our results indicate that it is the growth rate and diameter of PLLA spherulites that dominate the localization of TAIC. On the one hand, crystallization temperature plays an important role. Crystallization at higher temperature corresponds to higher growth rates and a greater diameter of PLLA spherulites. The former improves the ability of PLLA crystals to trap TAIC while the latter leads to a lower volume fraction of space among neighboring PLLA spherulites. The combination of the two contributes to the enhanced inclusion behaviors. On the other hand, when compared to melt crystallization, cold crystallization results in much smaller spherulites (from higher nucleation density) and sufficient space among spherulites, which accounts for the enrichment of TAIC in interspherulitic regions and for its enhanced exclusion. In the adopted polymer–small molecule blend, TAIC can enrich in interspherulitic regions even in its miscible blend with PLLA, which can be attributed to its stronger diffusion ability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Dynamic Characterization of Polymeric Composites)
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14 pages, 5308 KiB  
Article
Using Sodium Polyacrylate to Gel-Spin Lignin/Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Fiber at High Lignin Content
by Manik Chandra Biswas and Ericka Ford
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2736; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132736 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2404
Abstract
Lignin is the world’s most naturally abundant aromatic polymer, which makes it a sustainable raw material for engineered polymers and fiber manufacturing. Dry-jet gel-spinning was used to fabricate poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) fibers having 30% or more of the lignin biopolymer. To achieve this [...] Read more.
Lignin is the world’s most naturally abundant aromatic polymer, which makes it a sustainable raw material for engineered polymers and fiber manufacturing. Dry-jet gel-spinning was used to fabricate poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) fibers having 30% or more of the lignin biopolymer. To achieve this goal, 0.45 wt.% of aqueous sodium polyacrylate (SPA, at 0.55 wt.% solids) was added to spinning dopes of PVA dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). SPA served to enable the spinning of fibers having high lignin content (i.e., above 30%) while eliminating the aging of as-spun gel fiber prior to elevated temperature drawing. SPA impedes the migration of acetone soluble lignin from the skin of as-spun gel fibers, because SPA is insoluble in acetone, which is also a nonsolvent coagulant for PVA. PVA fibers having 30% lignin exhibited the highest tenacity of 1.3 cN/dtex (centinewton/decitex) and specific modulus 35.7 cN/dtex. The drawn fiber of 70% lignin to PVA, showed tenacity and specific modulus values of 0.94 cN/dtex and 35.3 cN/dtex, respectively. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed evidence of hydrogen bonding between lignin and PVA among the drawn fibers. The modification of PVA/lignin dopes with SPA, therefore, allowed for the fabrication of gel-spun biobased fibers without the previously required step of gel aging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Renewable and Sustainable Polymers)
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15 pages, 3188 KiB  
Article
Synthetic Route to Conjugated Donor–Acceptor Polymer Brushes via Alternating Copolymerization of Bifunctional Monomers
by Anna Grobelny, Karolina Lorenc, Łucja Skowron and Szczepan Zapotoczny
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2735; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132735 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1946
Abstract
Alternating donor–acceptor conjugated polymers, widely investigated due to their applications in organic photovoltaics, are obtained mainly by cross-coupling reactions. Such a synthetic route exhibits limited efficiency and requires using, for example, toxic palladium catalysts. Furthermore, the coating process demands solubility of the macromolecules, [...] Read more.
Alternating donor–acceptor conjugated polymers, widely investigated due to their applications in organic photovoltaics, are obtained mainly by cross-coupling reactions. Such a synthetic route exhibits limited efficiency and requires using, for example, toxic palladium catalysts. Furthermore, the coating process demands solubility of the macromolecules, provided by the introduction of alkyl side chains, which have an impact on the properties of the final material. Here, we present the synthetic route to ladder-like donor–acceptor polymer brushes using alternating copolymerization of modified styrene and maleic anhydride monomers, ensuring proper arrangement of the pendant donor and acceptor groups along the polymer chains grafted from a surface. As a proof of concept, macromolecules with pendant thiophene and benzothiadiazole groups were grafted by means of RAFT and metal-free ATRP polymerizations. Densely packed brushes with a thickness up to 200 nm were obtained in a single polymerization process, without the necessity of using metal-based catalysts or bulky substituents of the monomers. Oxidative polymerization using FeCl3 was then applied to form the conjugated chains in a double-stranded (ladder-like) architecture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Brushes: Synthesis, Properties and Structure)
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20 pages, 57043 KiB  
Article
Triblock Copolymer Compatibilizers for Enhancing the Mechanical Properties of a Renewable Bio-Polymer
by Guilian Xue, Bohua Sun, Lu Han, Baichuan Liu, Hongyu Liang, Yongfeng Pu, Hongming Tang and Fangwu Ma
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2734; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132734 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1994
Abstract
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is an emerging plastic that has insufficient properties (e.g., it is too brittle) for widespread commercial use. Previous research results have shown that the strength and toughness of basalt fiber reinforced PLA composites (PLA/BF) still need to be improved. To [...] Read more.
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is an emerging plastic that has insufficient properties (e.g., it is too brittle) for widespread commercial use. Previous research results have shown that the strength and toughness of basalt fiber reinforced PLA composites (PLA/BF) still need to be improved. To address this limitation, this study aimed to obtain an effective compatibilizer for PLA/BF. Melt-blending of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) with PLA in the presence of 4,4′-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI: 0.5 wt% of the total resin) afforded PLA/PBAT-MDI triblock copolymers. The triblock copolymers were melt-blended to improve the interfacial adhesion of PLA/BF and thus obtain excellent performance of the PLA-ternary polymers. This work presents the first investigation on the effects of PLA/PBAT-MDI triblock copolymers as compatibilizers for PLA/BF blends. The resultant mechanics, the morphology, interface, crystallinity, and thermal stability of the PLA-bio polymers were comprehensively examined via standard characterization techniques. The crystallinity of the PLA-ternary polymers was as high as 43.6%, 1.44× that of PLA/BF, and 163.5% higher than that of pure PLA. The stored energy of the PLA-ternary polymers reached 20,306.2 MPa, 5.5× than that of PLA/BF, and 18.6× of pure PLA. Moreover, the fatigue life of the PLA-ternary polymers was substantially improved, 5.85× than that of PLA/PBAT-MDI triblock copolymers. Thus, the PLA/PBAT-MDI triblock copolymers are compatibilizers that improve the mechanical properties of PLA/BF. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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16 pages, 4653 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties of Bambusa Oldhamii and Yushania-Alpina Bamboo Fibres Reinforced Polypropylene Composites
by Yalew Dessalegn, Balkeshwar Singh, Aart W. van Vuure, Ali A. Rajhi, Alaauldeen A. Duhduh, Nazia Hossain and Gulam Mohammed Sayeed Ahmed
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2733; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132733 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1714
Abstract
The current studies aim to measure the mechanical strength based on age, harvesting season and bamboo species in Ethiopia. The bamboo fibres are extracted using a roll milling machine, which was developed by the author. The age groups (1, 2 and 3 years), [...] Read more.
The current studies aim to measure the mechanical strength based on age, harvesting season and bamboo species in Ethiopia. The bamboo fibres are extracted using a roll milling machine, which was developed by the author. The age groups (1, 2 and 3 years), harvesting months (February and November), and bamboo species (Yushania alpina and Bambusa oldhamii) are the parameters of the current research studies. Prepregs and composites were produced from bamboo fibres and polypropylene. The mechanical properties of bamboo fibres and their composites in Ethiopia have not been investigated by researchers for the composite application so far. The tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and impact strength of injibara (Y. alpina) bamboo fibres reinforced PP composites from the ages of 1– 3 years old in November is 111 ± 9–125 ± 8 MPa, 15 ± 0.9–25 ± 0.72 GPa, and 47 ± 5 KJ/m2–57 ± 6 KJ/m2, whereas, in February, it is 86 ± 3.86–116 ± 10 MPa, 11 ± 0.71–23 ± 1.5 GPa, and 34 ± 4–52 ± 6 KJ/m2, respectively. Moreover, Kombolcha (B. oldhamii), bamboo fibres reinforced PP composites in November are 93 ± 7–111 ± 8 MPa, 7 ± 0.51–17 ± 2.56 GPa, and 39 ± 4–44 ± 5 KJ/m2, whereas, in February, it is 60 ± 5–104 ± 10 MPa, 12 ± 0.95–14 ± 0.92 GPa, and 26 ± 3 KJ/m2–38 ± 4 KJ/m2, respectively. Furthermore, Mekaneselam (Y. alpina) bamboo fibres reinforced PP composites in November are 99 ± 8–120 ± 11 MPa, 9 ± 0.82–16 ± 1.85 GPa, and 37 ± 4 KJ/m2–46 ± 5 KJ/m2, whereas, in February, it is 91 ± 8–110 ± 9 MPa, 8 ± 0.75–14 ± 1.86 GPa, and 34 ± 3 KJ/m2–40 ± 4 KJ/m2, respectively. At two years, November and Injibara bamboo have recorded the highest mechanical properties in the current research studies. Bamboo fiber strength in Ethiopia is comparable to the previous study of bamboo fibres and glass fibres used for composite materials in the automotive industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reinforced Polymer Composites III)
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21 pages, 6054 KiB  
Article
Application of Water Hyacinth Biomass (Eichhornia crassipes) as an Adsorbent for Methylene Blue Dye from Aqueous Medium: Kinetic and Isothermal Study
by Marcelo T. Carneiro, Ana Z. B. Barros, Alan I. S. Morais, André L. F. Carvalho Melo, Roosevelt D. S. Bezerra, Josy A. Osajima and Edson C. Silva-Filho
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2732; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132732 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2626
Abstract
Water pollution has generated the need to develop technologies to remove industrial pollutants. Adsorption has been recognized as one of the most effective techniques for effluent remediation. In this study, parts (stem and leaves) of a problematic aquatic weed, the water hyacinth ( [...] Read more.
Water pollution has generated the need to develop technologies to remove industrial pollutants. Adsorption has been recognized as one of the most effective techniques for effluent remediation. In this study, parts (stem and leaves) of a problematic aquatic weed, the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), were separated to produce a bioadsorbent. The objective was to evaluate the adsorption of a cationic dye, methylene blue (MB), in an aqueous solution of the biomass from different parts of the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) plants. The materials were characterized through techniques of infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, and thermogravimetric analysis, before and after the material adsorption. Water hyacinth biomasses presented adsorption capacity above 89%, and the kinetics was faster for stem biomass. The kinetic study found that the adsorption process is better described by the pseudo-second-order model, and the adjustments of the isotherm experimental data indicated that both materials are favorable for adsorption. Therefore, water hyacinth bioadsorbent represents a renewable resource with potential for effluent treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymeric Adsorbents)
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14 pages, 4280 KiB  
Article
Application of UV-Vis Optical Spectroscopy and X-ray Diffraction Methods to Describe the Effect of Alpha-Emitting Radionuclides (Radon) When They Are Detected by Solid-State Film Detectors
by Dana Yerimbetova, Artem Kozlovskiy, Valeriy Stepanenko and Kassym Zhumadilov
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2731; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132731 - 04 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1361
Abstract
This work aims to evaluate the application of optical and X-ray spectroscopy methods to determine the effect of alpha-emitting radionuclides on the properties of solid-state nuclear track detectors (SSNTD) based on nitrocellulose during their detection. The proposed estimation methods are alternative methods to [...] Read more.
This work aims to evaluate the application of optical and X-ray spectroscopy methods to determine the effect of alpha-emitting radionuclides on the properties of solid-state nuclear track detectors (SSNTD) based on nitrocellulose during their detection. The proposed estimation methods are alternative methods to standard technologies, making it possible to determine the concentration of radon and its decay products without the chemical etching of film detectors and subsequent direct counting of the formed latent tracks from interacting particles. During the research, it was found that the use of optical spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction methods makes it possible to qualitatively determine the irradiation effect on changes in the properties of film detectors when α-particles with different energies pass through them. At the same time, a comparison of the data of optical spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and the visualization of latent tracks after chemical etching made it possible to establish that a part of the registered α-particles in living quarters has an energy of less than 2.5 MeV, which is not enough to pass through the polymer film of the detector, as a result of which well-like tracks are formed. An increase in the intensity of the interference bands in the region above 700 nm and a decrease in the intensity of diffraction reflection characterized the changes in optical transmission. The penetration of the α-particles through the detecting film decreases the film’s transmission capacity, forming an anisotropic change in diffraction reflections associated with a change in the film’s structure and defective fractions distorting the molecular structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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20 pages, 8742 KiB  
Article
Research on the Simulation Model of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Composites Printing Track
by Yesong Wang, Jiang Liu, Yipeng Yu, Qing Zhang, Hongfu Li and Guokun Shi
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2730; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132730 - 03 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2233
Abstract
The rapid development of additive manufacturing technology (AM) is revolutionizing the traditional continuous fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) manufacturing process. The combination of FDM technology and CFRP technology gave birth to continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTPC) 3D printing technology. Parts with complex structure and [...] Read more.
The rapid development of additive manufacturing technology (AM) is revolutionizing the traditional continuous fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) manufacturing process. The combination of FDM technology and CFRP technology gave birth to continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTPC) 3D printing technology. Parts with complex structure and excellent performance can be fabricated by this technology. However, the current research on CFRTPC printing mainly focuses on printing equipment, materials, and the improvement of mechanical properties. In this paper, the CFRTPC 3D printing track errors are investigated during the printing process, and it is found that the polytetrafluoroetylene (PTFE) tube in the nozzle of the printer head is often blocked. Through detailed analysis, a line-following mathematical model reflecting the deviations of the CFRTPC printing track is established. According to the characteristics of the fiber and its track during actual laying, a modified line-following model, without the minimum curvature point, is further proposed. Based on this model, the actual printing track for the theoretical path is simulated, the process tests are carried out on the printing track at different corner angles, and the relevant rules between the parameters of the model and different corner angles are obtained. The mathematical model is verified by experiments, and the clogging problem of the printer head caused by the fiber track error is solved, which provides theoretical support for the rational design of the fiber track in CFRTPC printing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Polymer Composites and Structures)
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27 pages, 7840 KiB  
Article
Structural Characterization of Titanium–Silica Oxide Using Synchrotron Radiation X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy
by Arpaporn Teamsinsungvon, Chaiwat Ruksakulpiwat, Penphitcha Amonpattaratkit and Yupaporn Ruksakulpiwat
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2729; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132729 - 03 Jul 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1908
Abstract
In this study, titania–silica oxides (TixSiy oxides) were successfully prepared via the sol–gel technique. The Ti and Si precursors were titanium (IV), isopropoxide (TTIP), and tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS), respectively. In this work, the effects of pH and the Ti/Si atomic ratio [...] Read more.
In this study, titania–silica oxides (TixSiy oxides) were successfully prepared via the sol–gel technique. The Ti and Si precursors were titanium (IV), isopropoxide (TTIP), and tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS), respectively. In this work, the effects of pH and the Ti/Si atomic ratio of titanium–silicon binary oxide (TixSiy) on the structural characteristics of TixSiy oxide are reported. 29Si solid-state NMR and FTIR were used to validate the chemical structure of TixSiy oxide. The structural characteristics of TixSiy oxide were investigated using X-ray diffraction, XRF, Fe-SEM, diffraction particle size analysis, and nitrogen adsorption measurements. By applying X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) obtained from synchrotron light sources, the qualitative characterization of the Ti–O–Si and Ti–O–Ti bonds in Ti–Si oxides was proposed. Some Si atoms in the SiO2 network were replaced by Ti atoms, suggesting that Si–O–Ti bonds were formed as a result of the synthesis accomplished using the sol–gel technique described in this article. Upon increasing the pH to alkaline conditions (pH 9.0 and 10.0), the nanoparticles acquired a more spherical shape, and their size distribution became more uniform, resulting in an acceptable nanostructure. TixSiy oxide nanoparticles were largely spherical in shape, and agglomeration was minimized. However, the Ti50Si50 oxide particles at pH 10.0 become nano-sized and agglomerated. The presence of a significant pre-edge feature in the spectra of Ti50Si50 oxide samples implied that a higher fraction of Ti atoms occupied tetrahedral symmetry locations, as predicted in samples where Ti directly substituted Si. The proportion of Ti atoms in a tetrahedral environment agreed with the value of 1.83 given for the Ti–O bond distance in TixSiy oxides produced at pH 9.0 using extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis. Photocatalysis was improved by adding 3% wt TiO2, SiO2, and TixSiy oxide to the PLA film matrix. TiO2 was more effective than Ti50Si50 pH 9.0, Ti50Si50 pH 10.0, Ti50Si50 pH 8.0, and SiO2 in degrading methylene blue (MB). The most effective method to degrade MB was TiO2 > Ti70Si30 > Ti50Si50 > Ti40Si60 > SiO2. Under these conditions, PLA/Ti70Si30 improved the effectiveness of the photocatalytic activity of PLA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanoparticles and Polymers: Preparations and Applications)
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14 pages, 2765 KiB  
Article
Biosorbents Based on Biopolymers from Natural Sources and Food Waste to Retain the Methylene Blue Dye from the Aqueous Medium
by Alexandra Cristina Blaga, Alexandra Maria Tanasă, Ramona Cimpoesu, Ramona-Elena Tataru-Farmus and Daniela Suteu
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2728; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132728 - 03 Jul 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1984
Abstract
The use of a biosorbent based on residual biomass from brewing industry (Saccharomyces pastorianus) immobilized in a natural biopolymer (sodium alginate) was investigated for Methylene Blue removal from aqueous medium. Saccharomyces pastorianus, immobilized by a simple entrapment technique and by [...] Read more.
The use of a biosorbent based on residual biomass from brewing industry (Saccharomyces pastorianus) immobilized in a natural biopolymer (sodium alginate) was investigated for Methylene Blue removal from aqueous medium. Saccharomyces pastorianus, immobilized by a simple entrapment technique and by microencapsulation in alginate was characterized using SEM, EDAX, pHPZC and the biosorption behavior toward organic pollutant, such as cationic dye. The biosorption experiments were studied by assessing, in a first stage, the influence of the most important operational physical parameters on the efficiency of the biosorbent: the initial concentration of the dye, the contact time between phases, the temperature, the dye solution pH, the biosorbent granule size, and the amount of biosorbent. The highest sorption capacity was obtained for the biosorbent obtained by microencapsulation, at pH 9, at biosorbent dose of 5.28 g/L and a contact time of about 100 min. The biosorption equilibrium was then studied by modeling the data on the Langmuir, Freundlich and Dubinin- Radushkevich isotherms. The Langmuir model is best suited for experimental data on both particle sizes leading to a maximum biosorption capacity of 188.679 mg/g at room temperature. The values of the adsorption energy, E, obtained with the help of the Dubinin-Radushkevich model-suggest that the type of mechanism (physical or chemical) involved in the biosorption process depends on the particle size of the biosorbent. The results confirm that the residual microbial biomass of Saccharomyces pastorianus immobilized in a polymeric matrix such as sodium alginate, can be considered an efficient biosorbent in retaining cationic organic dyes present in aqueous solutions in moderate concentrations. Full article
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15 pages, 8245 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of Highly Conductive Silver-Coated Aluminum Microspheres Based on Poly(catechol/polyamine) Surface Modification
by Mingzheng Hao, Lei Li, Xiaoming Shao, Ming Tian, Hua Zou, Liqun Zhang and Wencai Wang
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2727; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132727 - 03 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2095
Abstract
A novel and cost-effective method for the fabrication of highly conductive Al/Ag core-shell structured microspheres was proposed and investigated. The oxidative co-deposition of catechol and polyamine was firstly performed to modify the surface of the aluminum microsphere. Then, a two-step electroless plating was [...] Read more.
A novel and cost-effective method for the fabrication of highly conductive Al/Ag core-shell structured microspheres was proposed and investigated. The oxidative co-deposition of catechol and polyamine was firstly performed to modify the surface of the aluminum microsphere. Then, a two-step electroless plating was conducted to fabricate the Al/Ag microspheres. During the first step of the electroless plating process, the surface of the aluminum microsphere was deposited with silver nanoparticle seeds using n-octylamine and ethylene glycol. Then, during the second step of the electroless plating process, silver particles grew evenly to form a compact silver shell on the surface of aluminum via a silver mirror reaction. According to the scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive X-ray results, a compact and continuous silver layer was successfully generated on the surface of the aluminum. The valence of the sliver on the surface of the aluminum was confirmed to be zero, based on the X-ray photoelectron spectrometer and X-ray diffractometer analyses. As a result, the as-prepared Al/Ag microspheres exhibited a high conductivity of 10,000 S/cm. The Al/Ag/MVQ composite demonstrated low electrical resistivity of 0.0039 Ω·cm and great electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness at more than 70 dB against the X-band, and this result suggests that the as-prepared composite is a promising conductive and electromagnetic shielding material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Polymers and Polymer Composites: Structure-Property Relationship)
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13 pages, 34352 KiB  
Article
Nonlinear Conductivity and Space Charge Characteristics of SiC/Silicone Rubber Nanocomposites
by Ming-Ze Gao, Zhong-Yuan Li and Wei-Feng Sun
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2726; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132726 - 03 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1652
Abstract
To achieve a preferable compatibility between liquid silicone rubber (LSR) and cable main insulation in a cable accessory, we developed SiC/LSR nanocomposites with a significantly higher conductivity nonlinearity than pure LSR, whilst representing a notable improvement in space charge characteristics. Space charge distributions [...] Read more.
To achieve a preferable compatibility between liquid silicone rubber (LSR) and cable main insulation in a cable accessory, we developed SiC/LSR nanocomposites with a significantly higher conductivity nonlinearity than pure LSR, whilst representing a notable improvement in space charge characteristics. Space charge distributions in polarization/depolarization processes and surface potentials of SiC/LSR composites are analyzed to elucidate the percolation conductance and charge trapping mechanisms accounting for nonlinear conductivity and space charge suppression. It is verified that SiC/LSR composites with SiC content higher than 10 wt% represent an evident nonlinearity of electric conductivity as a function of the electric field strength. Space charge accumulations can be inhibited by filling SiC nanoparticles into LSR, as illustrated in both dielectric polarization and depolarization processes. Energy level and density of shallow traps increase significantly with SiC content, which accounts for expediting carrier hopping transport and surface charge decay. Finite-element multiphysics simulations demonstrate that nonlinear conductivity acquired by 20 wt% SiC/LSR nanocomposite could efficiently homogenize an electric field distributed in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) cable joints. Nonlinear conductivities and space charge characteristics of SiC/LSR composites discussed in this paper suggest a feasible modification strategy to improve insulation performances of direct current (DC) cable accessories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Nanocomposites II)
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