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Polymers, Volume 13, Issue 2 (January-2 2021) – 144 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Sustainable biocomposites were produced combining a wood-based epoxy monomer, the resorcinol diglycidyl ether, with hydrothermal carbon prepared in mild conditions from forestry waste, the spruce bark powder. Interestingly, the DSC and in situ FT-IR investigations revealed that HTC acts as a coreactive in epoxy polymerization, catalyzing the process. The compatibility of the two components is excellent, the SEM analyses showing a good penetration of the monomer inside the HTC cells, and excellent interfacial adhesion between matrix and filler. The overall performances of these new biocomposites are excellent, with high glass transitions, hardness, and thermal stability. View this paper.
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16 pages, 3572 KiB  
Article
Deciphering Structural Determinants in Chondroitin Sulfate Binding to FGF-2: Paving the Way to Enhanced Predictability of Their Biological Functions
by Giulia Vessella, José Antonio Vázquez, Jesús Valcárcel, Laura Lagartera, Dianélis T. Monterrey, Agatha Bastida, Eduardo García-Junceda, Emiliano Bedini, Alfonso Fernández-Mayoralas and Julia Revuelta
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020313 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3481
Abstract
Controlling chondroitin sulfates (CSs) biological functions to exploit their interesting potential biomedical applications requires a comprehensive understanding of how the specific sulfate distribution along the polysaccharide backbone can impact in their biological activities, a still challenging issue. To this aim, herein, we have [...] Read more.
Controlling chondroitin sulfates (CSs) biological functions to exploit their interesting potential biomedical applications requires a comprehensive understanding of how the specific sulfate distribution along the polysaccharide backbone can impact in their biological activities, a still challenging issue. To this aim, herein, we have applied an “holistic approach” recently developed by us to look globally how a specific sulfate distribution within CS disaccharide epitopes can direct the binding of these polysaccharides to growth factors. To do this, we have analyzed several polysaccharides of marine origin and semi-synthetic polysaccharides, the latter to isolate the structure-activity relationships of their rare, and even unnatural, sulfated disaccharide epitopes. SPR studies revealed that all the tested polysaccharides bind to FGF-2 (with exception of CS-8, CS-12 and CS-13) according to a model in which the CSs first form a weak complex with the protein, which is followed by maturation to tight binding with kD ranging affinities from ~1.31 μM to 130 μM for the first step and from ~3.88 μM to 1.8 nM for the second one. These binding capacities are, interestingly, related with the surface charge of the 3D-structure that is modulated by the particular sulfate distribution within the disaccharide repeating-units. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Modification of Polysaccharides)
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10 pages, 2573 KiB  
Communication
Long- and Short-Term Conductance Control of Artificial Polymer Wire Synapses
by Naruki Hagiwara, Shoma Sekizaki, Yuji Kuwahara, Tetsuya Asai and Megumi Akai-Kasaya
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020312 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2994
Abstract
Networks in the human brain are extremely complex and sophisticated. The abstract model of the human brain has been used in software development, specifically in artificial intelligence. Despite the remarkable outcomes achieved using artificial intelligence, the approach consumes a huge amount of computational [...] Read more.
Networks in the human brain are extremely complex and sophisticated. The abstract model of the human brain has been used in software development, specifically in artificial intelligence. Despite the remarkable outcomes achieved using artificial intelligence, the approach consumes a huge amount of computational resources. A possible solution to this issue is the development of processing circuits that physically resemble an artificial brain, which can offer low-energy loss and high-speed processing. This study demonstrated the synaptic functions of conductive polymer wires linking arbitrary electrodes in solution. By controlling the conductance of the wires, synaptic functions such as long-term potentiation and short-term plasticity were achieved, which are similar to the manner in which a synapse changes the strength of its connections. This novel organic artificial synapse can be used to construct information-processing circuits by wiring from scratch and learning efficiently in response to external stimuli. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Polymers in Energy and Environmental Sciences)
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6 pages, 8668 KiB  
Communication
Facile Synthesis of Sprayed CNTs Layer-Embedded Stretchable Sensors with Controllable Sensitivity
by Hammad R. Khalid, Iqra Choudhry, Daeik Jang, Nadir Abbas, M. Salman Haider and H. K. Lee
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020311 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2263
Abstract
Flexible electronic devices have gained significant interest due to their different potential applications. Herein, we report highly flexible, stretchable, and sensitive sensors made of sprayed CNT layer, sandwiched between two polymer layers. A facile fabrication process was employed in which the CNT solution [...] Read more.
Flexible electronic devices have gained significant interest due to their different potential applications. Herein, we report highly flexible, stretchable, and sensitive sensors made of sprayed CNT layer, sandwiched between two polymer layers. A facile fabrication process was employed in which the CNT solution was directly sprayed onto a patterned bottom polymer layer, above which a second polymer layer was casted to get a sandwiched composite structure. Varying amounts of CNT solution (i.e., 10, 25, 40, 70, and 100 mL) were sprayed to get conductive CNT layers of different thicknesses/densities. The physical characteristics of the conductive CNT layers were studied through SEM and optical images. The starting electrical resistance values (without strain) as well as the changes in electrical resistance against human body motions were monitored. The synthesized samples exhibited good response against finger and wrist bending. The conductivity of the samples increased with increase of CNT solution volume while the sensitivity followed the inverse relation, suggesting that the sensors with controlled sensitivity could be fabricated for targeted strain ranges using the proposed method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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16 pages, 4675 KiB  
Article
Impact of Titanium Dioxide in the Mechanical Recycling of Post-Consumer Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottle Waste: Tensile and Fracture Behavior
by David Loaeza, Jonathan Cailloux, Orlando Santana Pérez, Miguel Sánchez-Soto and Maria Lluïsa Maspoch
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020310 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2498
Abstract
This work provides an experimental analysis regarding the fracture behavior of recycled opaque PET (rPET-O) containing titanium dioxide (TiO2) under plane stress conditions. For this purpose, a commercially post-consumer transparent colored/opaque PET flakes mix was processed using a semi-industrial extrusion calendering [...] Read more.
This work provides an experimental analysis regarding the fracture behavior of recycled opaque PET (rPET-O) containing titanium dioxide (TiO2) under plane stress conditions. For this purpose, a commercially post-consumer transparent colored/opaque PET flakes mix was processed using a semi-industrial extrusion calendering process. The manufactured rPET-O sheets had a TiO2 content of 1.45 wt.%. The mechanical and fracture properties of unaged and physically aged (1 year) samples were determined through uniaxial tensile experiments and the Essential Work of Fracture (EWF) methodology, respectively, and were compared to those of recycled transparent PET (rPET-T). Under tensile loading, independently of the aging time, rPET-O samples exhibited similar mechanical behavior as rPET-T up to the yield point. The main differences remained in the post-yielding region. The presence of TiO2 particles allowed reducing the strain energy density up to neck formation in aged samples. Regarding the EWF analysis, it is argued that the energy consumed up to the onset of crack propagation (we) for rPET-T was mainly dependent of the molecular mobility. That is, the we value decreased by 26% when rPET-T was physically aged. Interestingly, we values remained independent of the aging time for rPET-O. In fact, it was highlighted that before crack propagation, the EWF response was principally governed by matrix cavitation ahead of the crack tip, which allowed a significant release of the triaxial stress state independently of the molecular mobility. This property enabled rPET-O to exhibit a resistance to crack initiation 17% higher as compared to rPET-T when the material was physically aged. Finally, independently of the aging time, rPET-O exhibited a resistance to crack growth approximately 21% larger than rPET-T due to matrix fibrillation in large scale deformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Polymer Science)
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19 pages, 6737 KiB  
Article
Personalized Mass Production by Hybridization of Additive Manufacturing and Injection Molding
by Praveen Kannan Rajamani, Tatyana Ageyeva and József Gábor Kovács
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020309 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3299
Abstract
The new trend in the composites industry, as dictated by Industry 4.0, is the personalization of mass production to match every customer’s individual needs. Such synergy can be achieved when several traditional manufacturing techniques are combined within the production of a single part. [...] Read more.
The new trend in the composites industry, as dictated by Industry 4.0, is the personalization of mass production to match every customer’s individual needs. Such synergy can be achieved when several traditional manufacturing techniques are combined within the production of a single part. One of the most promising combinations is additive manufacturing (AM) with injection molding. AM offers higher production freedom in comparison with traditional techniques. As a result, even very sophisticated geometries can be manufactured by AM at a reasonable price. The bottleneck of AM is the production rate, which is several orders of magnitude slower than that of traditional plastic mass production technologies. On the other hand, injection molding is a manufacturing technique for high-volume production with little possibility of customization. The customization of injection-molded parts is usually very expensive and time-consuming. In this research, we offered a solution for the individualization of mass production, which includes 3D printing a baseplate with the subsequent overmolding of a rib element on it. We examined the bonding between the additive-manufactured component and the injection-molded component. As bonding strength between the coupled elements is significantly lower than the strength of the material, we proposed five strategies to improve bonding strength. The strategies are optimizing the printing parameters to obtain high surface roughness, creating an infill density in fused filament fabrication (FFF) parts, creating local infill density, creating microstructures, and incorporating fibers into the bonding area. We observed that the two most effective methods to increase bonding strength are the creation of local infill density and the creation of a microstructure at the contact area of FFF-printed and injection-molded elements. This increase was attributed to the porous structures that both methods created. The melt during injection molding flowed into these pores and formed micro-mechanical interlocking. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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21 pages, 11353 KiB  
Article
Solvent-Free Ultrasonic Dispersion of Nanofillers in Epoxy Matrix
by Benjamin Zanghellini, Patrick Knaack, Sebastian Schörpf, Karl-Heinz Semlitsch, Helga C. Lichtenegger, Bernhard Praher, Maria Omastova and Harald Rennhofer
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020308 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3481
Abstract
Dispersion of carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers is a crucial processing step in the production of polymer-based nanocomposites and poses a great challenge due to the tendency of nanofillers to agglomerate. One of the most effective methods for dispersion is the use of [...] Read more.
Dispersion of carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers is a crucial processing step in the production of polymer-based nanocomposites and poses a great challenge due to the tendency of nanofillers to agglomerate. One of the most effective methods for dispersion is the use of a three-roll mill, which is a well-established method and results in agglomerates below 5 µm. Nevertheless, this process is time-consuming and thus a limiting factor for industrial applications. Our aim was to establish an easy and efficient ultrasonic dispersion process, characterize the dispersion parameters, and compare both methods, ultrasonication and the three-roll mill. We applied rheological tests and analyzed the agglomerate sizes by an image fit of the microscopy images. All these analyses combined deliver a valuable set of information about the dispersion’s quality and, therefore, allows the improvement and further adaptation of the dispersion process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Epoxy-Based Materials)
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15 pages, 4928 KiB  
Article
Electrospun Scaffolds in Periodontal Wound Healing
by Mária Budai-Szűcs, Marco Ruggeri, Angela Faccendini, Attila Léber, Silvia Rossi, Gábor Varga, Maria Cristina Bonferoni, Péter Vályi, Katalin Burián, Erzsébet Csányi, Giuseppina Sandri and Franca Ferrari
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020307 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3138
Abstract
Periodontitis is a set of inflammatory conditions affecting the tissues surrounding the teeth predominantly sustained by bacterial infections. The aim of the work was the design and the development of scaffolds based on biopolymers to be inserted in the periodontal pocket to restore [...] Read more.
Periodontitis is a set of inflammatory conditions affecting the tissues surrounding the teeth predominantly sustained by bacterial infections. The aim of the work was the design and the development of scaffolds based on biopolymers to be inserted in the periodontal pocket to restore tissue integrity and to treat bacterial infections. Nanofibrous scaffolds were prepared by means of electrospinning. Gelatin was considered as base component and was associated to low and high molecular weight chitosans and alginate. The scaffolds were characterized by chemico–physical properties (morphology, solid state-FTIR and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)-surface zeta potential and contact angle), and mechanical properties. Moreover, preclinical properties (cytocompatibility, fibroblast and osteoblast adhesion and proliferation and antimicrobial properties) were assessed. All the scaffolds were based on cylindrical and smooth nanofibers and preserved their nanofibrous structure upon hydration independently of their composition. They possessed a high degree of hydrophilicity and negative zeta potentials in a physiological environment, suitable surface properties to enhance cell adhesion and proliferation and to inhibit bacteria attachment. The scaffold based on gelatin and low molecular weight chitosan proved to be effective in vitro to support both fibroblasts and osteoblasts adhesion and proliferation and to impair the proliferation of Streptococcus mutans and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, both pathogens involved in periodontitis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Technology for Nanomedicine and Wound Healing)
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15 pages, 5394 KiB  
Article
Development of Inorganic Particle-Filled Polypropylene/High Density Polyethylene Membranes via Multilayer Co-Extrusion and Stretching
by Pilar Castejón, Marcelo Antunes and David Arencón
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020306 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2726
Abstract
This work is made to ascertain the effects of mineral fillers, namely calcium carbonate and talc, on the morphology and properties of multilayer polypropylene (PP)/high-density polyethylene (HDPE) porous membranes. Multilayer membranes were prepared using the three-stage Melt-Extrusion, Annealing and Uniaxial Stretching (MEAUS) process. [...] Read more.
This work is made to ascertain the effects of mineral fillers, namely calcium carbonate and talc, on the morphology and properties of multilayer polypropylene (PP)/high-density polyethylene (HDPE) porous membranes. Multilayer membranes were prepared using the three-stage Melt-Extrusion, Annealing and Uniaxial Stretching (MEAUS) process. The orientation of PP’s crystalline phase was affected by both the flow-induced crystallization and the heterogeneous nucleation promoted by the fillers. A synergistic effect was observed in the filled samples due to the generation of pores after the stretching-induced lamellae separation and the debonding of mineral fillers from the polymeric matrix. The fillers increased the porous surface, leading to an increase of permeance to air, being this effect more marked at higher filler contents. Talc showed a higher efficiency to create porous surfaces when compared to calcium carbonate. The thermal stability of the membranes increased with filler addition, as well as their stiffness and strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Membranes)
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18 pages, 5779 KiB  
Article
3D Printing of a Self-Healing Thermoplastic Polyurethane through FDM: From Polymer Slab to Mechanical Assessment
by Linda Ritzen, Vincenzo Montano and Santiago J. Garcia
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020305 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5322
Abstract
The use of self-healing (SH) polymers to make 3D-printed polymeric parts offers the potential to increase the quality of 3D-printed parts and to increase their durability and damage tolerance due to their (on-demand) dynamic nature. Nevertheless, 3D-printing of such dynamic polymers is not [...] Read more.
The use of self-healing (SH) polymers to make 3D-printed polymeric parts offers the potential to increase the quality of 3D-printed parts and to increase their durability and damage tolerance due to their (on-demand) dynamic nature. Nevertheless, 3D-printing of such dynamic polymers is not a straightforward process due to their polymer architecture and rheological complexity and the limited quantities produced at lab-scale. This limits the exploration of the full potential of self-healing polymers. In this paper, we present the complete process for fused deposition modelling of a room temperature self-healing polyurethane. Starting from the synthesis and polymer slab manufacturing, we processed the polymer into a continuous filament and 3D printed parts. For the characterization of the 3D printed parts, we used a compression cut test, which proved useful when limited amount of material is available. The test was able to quasi-quantitatively assess both bulk and 3D printed samples and their self-healing behavior. The mechanical and healing behavior of the 3D printed self-healing polyurethane was highly similar to that of the bulk SH polymer. This indicates that the self-healing property of the polymer was retained even after multiple processing steps and printing. Compared to a commercial 3D-printing thermoplastic polyurethane, the self-healing polymer displayed a smaller mechanical dependency on the printing conditions with the added value of healing cuts at room temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Self-Healing Polymers)
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12 pages, 2173 KiB  
Communication
Average Shear Rates in the Screw Elements of a Corotating Twin-Screw Extruder
by Bruno Vergnes
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020304 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2783
Abstract
The rapid estimation of the average shear rate encountered by the material as it flows along the screw elements of a corotating twin-screw extruder is a key point for many applications. In this paper, two methods of evaluation are presented that allow the [...] Read more.
The rapid estimation of the average shear rate encountered by the material as it flows along the screw elements of a corotating twin-screw extruder is a key point for many applications. In this paper, two methods of evaluation are presented that allow the calculation of the average shear rate as a function of the screw geometry, feed rate, and screw speed. A comparison is made between the approximate and exact methods. It is shown that it is crucial to take into account the shear component due to the pressure flow, especially in the left-handed screw elements. Full article
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13 pages, 6060 KiB  
Article
Excellent Fire Retardant Properties of CNF/VMT Based LBL Coatings Deposited on Polypropylene and Wood-Ply
by Zeeshan Ur Rehman, Atif Khan Niaz, Jung-Il Song and Bon Heun Koo
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020303 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2337
Abstract
In this report, layer by layer (LBL) fire retardant coatings were produced on wood ply and Polypropylene Homopolymer/Flax fiber composites. FE-SEM and EDAX analysis was carried out to analyze the surface morphology, thickness, growth rate and elemental composition of the samples. Coatings with [...] Read more.
In this report, layer by layer (LBL) fire retardant coatings were produced on wood ply and Polypropylene Homopolymer/Flax fiber composites. FE-SEM and EDAX analysis was carried out to analyze the surface morphology, thickness, growth rate and elemental composition of the samples. Coatings with a high degree of uniformity were formed on Polypropylene composite (PP/flax), while coatings with highest thickness were obtained on wood ply (wood). FTIR and Raman spectroscopy were further used for the molecular identifications of the coatings, which confirmed the maximum deposition of the solution components on the wood substrate. A physiochemical analysis and model was proposed to explain the forces of adhesion between the substrate and solution molecules. Fire protection and thermal properties were studied using TGA and UL-94 tests. It was explored, that the degradation of the coated substrates was highly protected by the coatings as follows: wood > PP/flax > PP. From the UL-94 test, it was further discovered that more than 83% of the coated wood substrate was protected from burning, compared to the 0% of the uncoated substrate. The flammability resistance of the samples was ranked as wood > PP/flax > PP. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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12 pages, 9322 KiB  
Article
Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) Based Electrospun Composite Nanofiber Mats for Food Packaging
by Motahira Hashmi, Sana Ullah, Azeem Ullah, Yusuke Saito, Md. Kaiser Haider, Xinyu Bie, Kosei Wada and Ick Soo Kim
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020302 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6545
Abstract
Cellulose is one of the most abundantly available natural polymers. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) belongs to the cellulose family and has different degrees of substitution. Current research comprises the fabrication and characterization of CMC nanofibers using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as capping [...] Read more.
Cellulose is one of the most abundantly available natural polymers. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) belongs to the cellulose family and has different degrees of substitution. Current research comprises the fabrication and characterization of CMC nanofibers using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as capping agents and carriers for sustainable food packaging applications. Recently authors successfully fabricated smooth and uniform nanofibers of stated polymers and optimized the ratios of three polymers for continuous production. However, in this research, it was further characterized for mechanical properties, surface properties, structural properties, air permeability, and chemical properties to confirm the suitability and scope of tri-component nanofibrous mats in food packaging applications. Different fruits and vegetables were packed in a plastic container and closed by nanofiber mats and by a plastic lid. All samples were observed after a specific period of time (fruits were kept for 40 days while vegetables were kept for 10 days in the controlled environment). It was observed in the results that fruits and vegetables closed by nanofiber based webs exhibited better freshness and lower accumulation of moisture as compared to that of containers with plastic lids. From the results of performed tests, it was observed that nanofiber mats possess enough mechanical, structural, and morphological properties to be used as food packaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Plastics for Active/Intelligent Food Packaging)
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10 pages, 8642 KiB  
Article
New Pure Organic and Peroxide-Free Redox Initiating Systems for Polymerization in Mild Conditions
by Ahmad Arar, Lilian Wisson and Jacques Lalevée
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020301 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2386
Abstract
Redox initiating systems (RISs) are highly worthwhile for polymerization in mild conditions (at room temperature—RT) without external thermal or light activation. With high performance redox initiating systems RIS, the free radical polymerization FRP can even be carried out under air and without inhibitors/stabilizers [...] Read more.
Redox initiating systems (RISs) are highly worthwhile for polymerization in mild conditions (at room temperature—RT) without external thermal or light activation. With high performance redox initiating systems RIS, the free radical polymerization FRP can even be carried out under air and without inhibitors/stabilizers removal from the monomers/resins. However, efficient RISs are still based on peroxides or metal complexes. In this work, a pure organic and peroxide-free RIS is presented based on the interaction of a well-selected triarylamine derivative (T4epa) with iodonium salt used as reducing and oxidizing agents, respectively. The redox polymerization (Redox FRP) was followed through pyrometry and thermal imaging experiments. Remarkably, a full control of the work time as well as a high reactivity is observed for mild conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Design and Synthesis of Polymers)
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13 pages, 1396 KiB  
Review
Recycling of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite Polymers—Review—Part 1: Volume of Production, Recycling Technologies, Legislative Aspects
by Andrzej K. Bledzki, Holger Seidlitz, Krzysztof Goracy, Magdalena Urbaniak and Janina J. Rösch
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020300 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5351
Abstract
The paper presents the current volume of international production and global markets of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites, also regarding the potential development trends. Examples were provided on how to effectively recycle carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites. Legally binding legislation in the EU [...] Read more.
The paper presents the current volume of international production and global markets of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites, also regarding the potential development trends. Examples were provided on how to effectively recycle carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites. Legally binding legislation in the EU on polymer composite recycling was given. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)
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15 pages, 11411 KiB  
Article
Thermomechanical Analysis of Isora Nanofibril Incorporated Polyethylene Nanocomposites
by Cintil Jose, Chin Han Chan, Tan Winie, Blessy Joseph, Abhimanyu Tharayil, Hanna J Maria, Tatiana Volova, Francesco Paolo La Mantia, Didier Rouxel, Marco Morreale, David Laroze, Lovely Mathew and Sabu Thomas
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020299 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2456
Abstract
The research on cellulose fiber-reinforced nanocomposites has increased by an unprecedented magnitude over the past few years due to its wide application range and low production cost. However, the incompatibility between cellulose and most thermoplastics has raised significant challenges in composite fabrication. This [...] Read more.
The research on cellulose fiber-reinforced nanocomposites has increased by an unprecedented magnitude over the past few years due to its wide application range and low production cost. However, the incompatibility between cellulose and most thermoplastics has raised significant challenges in composite fabrication. This paper addresses the behavior of plasma-modified polyethylene (PE) reinforced with cellulose nanofibers extracted from isora plants (i.e., isora nanofibrils (INFs)). The crystallization kinetics of PE–INF composites were explained using the Avrami model. The effect of cellulose nanofillers on tuning the physiochemical properties of the nanocomposite was also explored in this work. The increase in mechanical properties was due to the uniform dispersion of fillers in the PE. The investigation on viscoelastic properties confirmed good filler–matrix interactions, facilitating the stress transfer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Nanocomposites II)
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19 pages, 12705 KiB  
Article
Ultrasonic Welding of PBT-GF30 (70% Polybutylene Terephthalate + 30% Fiber Glass) and Expanded Polytetrafluoroethylene (e-PTFE)
by Dan Dobrotă and Sergiu Viorel Lazăr
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020298 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3031
Abstract
The ultrasonic welding of polymeric materials is one of the methods often used in practice. However, each couple of material subjected to ultrasonic welding is characterized by different values of technological parameters. Therefore, the main objective of the research presented in this paper [...] Read more.
The ultrasonic welding of polymeric materials is one of the methods often used in practice. However, each couple of material subjected to ultrasonic welding is characterized by different values of technological parameters. Therefore, the main objective of the research presented in this paper is to optimize the parameters for the ultrasonic welding of two materials, namely PBT-GF30 (70% polybutylene terephthalate + 30% fiber glass) and expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (e-PTFE). In this sense, the research was carried out considering a plate-type part made of PBT-GF30, which had a thickness of 2.1 mm, and a membrane-type part made of e-PTFE, with a thickness of 0.3 mm. The condition imposed on the welded joints made, namely to correspond from a technical point of view, was that the detachment pressure of the membrane should be at least 4 bar. To this end, a test device was designed. Additionally, the topography of the material layer from the plate-type part was analyzed, as well as the chemical composition and surface condition for the membrane-type part. The obtained results allowed the optimization of the following parameters: The welding force; welding time; amplitude; and holding time. All experimental results were processed using STATISTICS software, which established how each parameter influences the characteristics of welded joints. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing-Structure-Properties Relationships in Polymers II)
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16 pages, 3126 KiB  
Article
Isothermal Kinetics of Epoxyphosphazene Cure
by Natalia V. Bornosuz, Irina Yu. Gorbunova, Viktoria V. Petrakova, Vyacheslav V. Shutov, Vyacheslav V. Kireev, Denis V. Onuchin and Igor S. Sirotin
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020297 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1857
Abstract
The influence of epoxycyclophosphazene modifier on the process of epoxy-amine curing was studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The study revealed that the curing process of epoxyphosphazene binders with 4′4′diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS) provides more complete curing of the formulations in comparison with ones applying [...] Read more.
The influence of epoxycyclophosphazene modifier on the process of epoxy-amine curing was studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The study revealed that the curing process of epoxyphosphazene binders with 4′4′diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS) provides more complete curing of the formulations in comparison with ones applying low molecular-weight polyamide curing agent (L-20). The isothermal kinetics of curing was described by means of model fitting and the isoconversional approach (Friedman method). Accurate n-order approximation was obtained for all systems under study. In particular, the 2-order equation fits well with the main part of curing excluding high degrees of conversion. The process of curing could be distinguished into three zones. The transition from zone 2 to zone 3 correlates with gelation. According to the isoconversional analysis by Friedman method, the diffusion-controlled mechanism is found at final stage of curing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)
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18 pages, 6593 KiB  
Article
Recyclable High-Performance Epoxy-Anhydride Resins with DMP-30 as the Catalyst of Transesterification Reactions
by Wenzhe Zhao, Le An and Shujuan Wang
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020296 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6107
Abstract
Epoxy-anhydride resins are widely used in engineering fields due to their excellent performance. However, the insolubility and infusibility make the recycling of epoxy resins challenging. The development of degradable epoxy resins with stable covalent networks provides an efficient solution to the recycling of [...] Read more.
Epoxy-anhydride resins are widely used in engineering fields due to their excellent performance. However, the insolubility and infusibility make the recycling of epoxy resins challenging. The development of degradable epoxy resins with stable covalent networks provides an efficient solution to the recycling of thermosets. In this paper, 2,4,6-tris(dimethylaminomethyl)phenol (DMP-30) is incorporated into the epoxy-glutaric anhydride (GA) system to prepare high-performance epoxy resins that can be recycled below 200 °C at ordinary pressure via ethylene glycol (EG) participated transesterification. The tertiary amine groups in DMP-30 can catalyze the curing reaction of epoxy and anhydride, as well as the transesterification between ester bonds and alcoholic hydroxyl groups. Compared with early recyclable anhydride-cured epoxy resins, the preparation and recycling of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA)/GA/DMP-30 systems do not need any special catalysts such as TBD, Zn(Ac)2, etc., which are usually expensive, toxic, and have poor compatibility with other compounds. The resulting resins have glass transition temperatures and strengths similar to those of conventional epoxy resins. The influences of GA content, DMP-30 content, and temperature on the dissolution rate were studied. The decomposed epoxy oligomer (DEO) is further used as a reaction ingredient to prepare new resins. It is found that the DEO can improve the toughness of epoxy resins significantly. This work provides a simple method to prepare readily recyclable epoxy resins, which is of low-cost and easy to implement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Recycling of Polymers)
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14 pages, 2893 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Polycaprolactone Nanohydroxyapatite Composites with Tunable Degradability Suitable for Indirect Printing
by Stephanie E. Doyle, Lauren Henry, Ellen McGennisken, Carmine Onofrillo, Claudia Di Bella, Serena Duchi, Cathal D. O'Connell and Elena Pirogova
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020295 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2992
Abstract
Degradable bone implants are designed to foster the complete regeneration of natural tissue after large-scale loss trauma. Polycaprolactone (PCL) and hydroxyapatite (HA) composites are promising scaffold materials with superior mechanical and osteoinductive properties compared to the single materials. However, producing three-dimensional (3D) structures [...] Read more.
Degradable bone implants are designed to foster the complete regeneration of natural tissue after large-scale loss trauma. Polycaprolactone (PCL) and hydroxyapatite (HA) composites are promising scaffold materials with superior mechanical and osteoinductive properties compared to the single materials. However, producing three-dimensional (3D) structures with high HA content as well as tuneable degradability remains a challenge. To address this issue and create homogeneously distributed PCL-nanoHA (nHA) scaffolds with tuneable degradation rates through both PCL molecular weight and nHA concentration, we conducted a detailed characterisation and comparison of a range of PCL-nHA composites across three molecular weight PCLs (14, 45, and 80 kDa) and with nHA content up to 30% w/w. In general, the addition of nHA results in an increase of viscosity for the PCL-nHA composites but has little effect on their compressive modulus. Importantly, we observe that the addition of nHA increases the rate of degradation compared to PCL alone. We show that the 45 and 80 kDa PCL-nHA groups can be fabricated via indirect 3D printing and have homogenously distributed nHA even after fabrication. Finally, the cytocompatibility of the composite materials is evaluated for the 45 and 80 kDa groups, with the results showing no significant change in cell number compared to the control. In conclusion, our analyses unveil several features that are crucial for processing the composite material into a tissue engineered implant. Full article
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24 pages, 6494 KiB  
Article
On the Mutual Relationships between Molecular Probe Mobility and Free Volume and Polymer Dynamics in Organic Glass Formers: cis-1,4-poly(isoprene)
by Helena Švajdlenková, Ondrej Šauša, Sergey V. Adichtchev, Nikolay V. Surovtsev, Vladimir N. Novikov and Josef Bartoš
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020294 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2212
Abstract
We report on the reorientation dynamics of small spin probe 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxyl (TEMPO) in cis-1,4-poly(isoprene) (cis-1,4-PIP10k) from electron spin resonance (ESR) and the free volume of cis-1,4-PIP10k from positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) in relation to the high-frequency relaxations of [...] Read more.
We report on the reorientation dynamics of small spin probe 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxyl (TEMPO) in cis-1,4-poly(isoprene) (cis-1,4-PIP10k) from electron spin resonance (ESR) and the free volume of cis-1,4-PIP10k from positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) in relation to the high-frequency relaxations of cis-1,4-PIP10k using light scattering (LS) as well as to the slow and fast processes from broadband dielectric spectroscopy (BDS) and neutron scattering (NS). The hyperfine coupling constant, 2Azz′(T), and the correlation times, τc(T), of cis-1,4-PIP10k/TEMPO system as a function of temperature exhibit several regions of the distinct spin probe TEMPO dynamics over a wide temperature range from 100 K up to 350 K. The characteristic ESR temperatures of changes in the spin probe dynamics in cis-1,4-PIP10k/TEMPO system are closely related to the characteristic PALS ones reflecting changes in the free volume expansion from PALS measurement. Finally, the time scales of the slow and fast dynamics of TEMPO in cis-1,4-PIP10k are compared with all of the six known slow and fast relaxation modes from BDS, LS and NS techniques with the aim to discuss the controlling factors of the spin probe reorientation mobility in polymer, oligomer and small molecular organic glass-formers. Full article
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18 pages, 3220 KiB  
Review
Advances in the Multi-Orthogonal Folding of Single Polymer Chains into Single-Chain Nanoparticles
by Agustín Blazquez-Martín, Ester Verde-Sesto, Angel J. Moreno, Arantxa Arbe, Juan Colmenero and José A. Pomposo
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020293 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3279
Abstract
The folding of certain proteins (e.g., enzymes) into perfectly defined 3D conformations via multi-orthogonal interactions is critical to their function. Concerning synthetic polymers chains, the “folding” of individual polymer chains at high dilution via intra-chain interactions leads to so-called single-chain nanoparticles (SCNPs). This [...] Read more.
The folding of certain proteins (e.g., enzymes) into perfectly defined 3D conformations via multi-orthogonal interactions is critical to their function. Concerning synthetic polymers chains, the “folding” of individual polymer chains at high dilution via intra-chain interactions leads to so-called single-chain nanoparticles (SCNPs). This review article describes the advances carried out in recent years in the folding of single polymer chains into discrete SCNPs via multi-orthogonal interactions using different reactive chemical species where intra-chain bonding only occurs between groups of the same species. First, we summarize results from computer simulations of multi-orthogonally folded SCNPs. Next, we comprehensively review multi-orthogonally folded SCNPs synthesized via either non-covalent bonds or covalent interactions. Finally, we conclude by summarizing recent research about multi-orthogonally folded SCNPs prepared through both reversible (dynamic) and permanent bonds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Single-Chain Polymer Nanotechnology)
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19 pages, 6731 KiB  
Article
Influence of Drug Incorporation on the Physico-Chemical Properties of Poly(l-Lactide) Implant Coating Matrices—A Systematic Study
by Daniela Arbeiter, Thomas Reske, Michael Teske, Dalibor Bajer, Volkmar Senz, Klaus-Peter Schmitz, Niels Grabow and Stefan Oschatz
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020292 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2864
Abstract
Local drug delivery has become indispensable in biomedical engineering with stents being ideal carrier platforms. While local drug release is superior to systemic administration in many fields, the incorporation of drugs into polymers may influence the physico-chemical properties of said matrix. This is [...] Read more.
Local drug delivery has become indispensable in biomedical engineering with stents being ideal carrier platforms. While local drug release is superior to systemic administration in many fields, the incorporation of drugs into polymers may influence the physico-chemical properties of said matrix. This is of particular relevance as minimally invasive implantation is frequently accompanied by mechanical stresses on the implant and coating. Thus, drug incorporation into polymers may result in a susceptibility to potentially life-threatening implant failure. We investigated spray-coated poly-l-lactide (PLLA)/drug blends using thermal measurements (DSC) and tensile tests to determine the influence of selected drugs, namely sirolimus, paclitaxel, dexamethasone, and cyclosporine A, on the physico-chemical properties of the polymer. For all drugs and PLLA/drug ratios, an increase in tensile strength was observed. As for sirolimus and dexamethasone, PLLA/drug mixed phase systems were identified by shifted drug melting peaks at 200 °C and 240 °C, respectively, whereas paclitaxel and dexamethasone led to cold crystallization. Cyclosporine A did not affect matrix thermal properties. Altogether, our data provide a contribution towards an understanding of the complex interaction between PLLA and different drugs. Our results hold implications regarding the necessity of target-oriented thermal treatment to ensure the shelf life and performance of stent coatings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Pharmaceutical Applications II)
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14 pages, 4468 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Characterization of Hydrophobically Modified Xylans
by Huai N. Cheng, Atanu Biswas, Sanghoon Kim, Carlucio R. Alves and Roselayne F. Furtado
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020291 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2453
Abstract
Xylan is a major type of hemicellulose that has attracted a lot of research and development activities. It is often derivatized in order to improve its properties. In the literature, hydrophobic modification of polymers is often used to produce surfactant-like materials and associative [...] Read more.
Xylan is a major type of hemicellulose that has attracted a lot of research and development activities. It is often derivatized in order to improve its properties. In the literature, hydrophobic modification of polymers is often used to produce surfactant-like materials and associative thickeners. In this work, we have derivatized xylan with alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) and two types of alkenyl succinic anhydrides (ASAs). The xylan-AKD derivatives have been made at 90 °C, using dimethyl sulfoxide as solvent and 4-dimethylaminopyridine as promoter. Samples with degrees of substitution (DS) up to 0.006 have been produced. The xylan-ASA derivatives have been synthesized at 120 °C in dimethyl sulfoxide with DS up to 0.105–0.135. The structures of these products have been confirmed with NMR and FT-IR. These xylan derivatives increase the structural diversity of xylan and provide additional options for people seeking to use hydrophobically modified polysaccharides in their applications. Full article
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10 pages, 2082 KiB  
Article
Pilot-Scale Production of Chito-Oligosaccharides Using an Innovative Recombinant Chitosanase Preparation Approach
by Chih-Yu Cheng, Chia-Huang Tsai, Pei-Jyun Liou and Chi-Hang Wang
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020290 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2059
Abstract
For pilot-scale production of chito-oligosaccharides, it must be cost-effective to prepare designable recombinant chitosanase. Herein, an efficient method for preparing recombinant Bacillus chitosanase from Escherichia coli by elimination of undesirable substances as a precipitate is proposed. After an optimized culture with IPTG (Isopropyl [...] Read more.
For pilot-scale production of chito-oligosaccharides, it must be cost-effective to prepare designable recombinant chitosanase. Herein, an efficient method for preparing recombinant Bacillus chitosanase from Escherichia coli by elimination of undesirable substances as a precipitate is proposed. After an optimized culture with IPTG (Isopropyl β-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside) induction, the harvested cells were resuspended, disrupted by sonication, divided by selective precipitation, and stored using the same solution conditions. Several factors involved in these procedures, including ion types, ionic concentration, pH, and bacterial cell density, were examined. The optimal conditions were inferred to be pH = 4.5, 300 mM sodium dihydrogen phosphate, and cell density below 1011 cells/mL. Finally, recombinant chitosanase was purified to >70% homogeneity with an activity recovery and enzyme yield of 90% and 106 mg/L, respectively. When 10 L of 5% chitosan was hydrolyzed with 2500 units of chitosanase at ambient temperature for 72 h, hydrolyzed products having molar masses of 833 ± 222 g/mol with multiple degrees of polymerization (chito-dimer to tetramer) were obtained. This work provided an economical and eco-friendly preparation of recombinant chitosanase to scale up the hydrolysis of chitosan towards tailored oligosaccharides in the near future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Chitosan: Properties and Applications II)
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12 pages, 4134 KiB  
Article
Effects of Coagent Functionalities on Properties of Ultrafine Fully Vulcanized Powdered Natural Rubber Prepared as Toughening Filler in Rigid PVC
by Yiting Lin, Lunjakorn Amornkitbamrung, Phattarin Mora, Chanchira Jubsilp, Kasinee Hemvichian, Apinan Soottitantawat, Sanong Ekgasit and Sarawut Rimdusit
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020289 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1996
Abstract
Ultrafine fully vulcanized powdered natural rubber (UFPNR) has a promising application as a renewable toughening modifier in polymer matrices. In this work, the effects of acrylate coagents, which had different amounts of functional groups, on properties of UFPNR produced by radiation vulcanization and [...] Read more.
Ultrafine fully vulcanized powdered natural rubber (UFPNR) has a promising application as a renewable toughening modifier in polymer matrices. In this work, the effects of acrylate coagents, which had different amounts of functional groups, on properties of UFPNR produced by radiation vulcanization and spray-drying was systematically investigated for the first time. Dipropylene glycol diacrylate (DPGDA), trimethylol propane trimethaacrylate (TMPTMA), and ditrimethylol propane tetraacrylate (DTMPTA) were used as coagents with two, three, and four acrylate groups, respectively. The radiation in the range of 250 to 400 kGy and coagent contents of up to 11 phr were used in the production process. Physical, chemical, and thermal properties of the UFPNR were characterized by swelling analysis, scanning electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. The properties of UFPNR produced by using different type and content of coagents were compared and discussed. The results revealed that UFPNR with the smallest particle size of 3.6 ± 1.1 μm and the highest thermal stability (Td5 = 349 °C) could be obtained by using DTMPTA, which had the highest amount of functional group. It was proposed that the coagent with the greater number of acrylate groups enhanced the crosslinking of natural rubber as it had more reactive groups. Finally, an application of UFPNR as a toughening filler in rigid PVC was demonstrated with 34% improvement of impact strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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18 pages, 6791 KiB  
Article
Injection Molded PP Foams Using Food Ingredients for Food Packaging Applications
by Artemis Tsagdi, Ioannis Drossos, Despoina Georgiou, Stylianos Exarhopoulos, Georgios Karasiotas, Joannis K. Kallitsis and Eleni P. Kalogianni
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020288 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2410
Abstract
A new approach to the creation of polypropylene (PP) based foaming materials was developed using food grade foaming agents that were coated on the PP pellets. More specifically, sodium bicarbonate and organic acids were used to coat PP pellets using either polyethyleneoxide (PEO) [...] Read more.
A new approach to the creation of polypropylene (PP) based foaming materials was developed using food grade foaming agents that were coated on the PP pellets. More specifically, sodium bicarbonate and organic acids were used to coat PP pellets using either polyethyleneoxide (PEO) or lipid esters as coating stabilizers. In order to overcome the problem of the thermal decomposition of sodium bicarbonate at temperatures lower than the PP melting temperature, which makes the direct foaming during melt mixing impossible, the proposed methodology was proved quite efficient. Thus, new PP masterbatches were prepared, where the foaming agents were incorporated as coating at PP pellets at contents up to 10%, and initially used in Lab scale injection machines in order to find the best combination of materials that resulted in the production of foamed articles. Subsequently selected material combinations were tested in an industrial scale injection molding machine, where an optimization of the injection parameters was attempted. The outcome of this was the production of PP articles with significantly increased void fraction, up to 14%, decreased thermal conductivity, up to 20%, and various pore sizes as was observed via microscopic examination using SEM and CLSM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymeric Materials II)
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18 pages, 2364 KiB  
Article
Conversion of Wheat Bran to Xylanases and Dye Adsorbent by Streptomyces thermocarboxydus
by Thi Ngoc Tran, Chien Thang Doan and San-Lang Wang
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020287 - 17 Jan 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2731
Abstract
Agro-byproducts can be utilized as effective and low-cost nutrient sources for microbial fermentation to produce a variety of usable products. In this study, wheat bran powder (WBP) was found to be the most effective carbon source for xylanase production by Streptomyces thermocarboxydus TKU045. [...] Read more.
Agro-byproducts can be utilized as effective and low-cost nutrient sources for microbial fermentation to produce a variety of usable products. In this study, wheat bran powder (WBP) was found to be the most effective carbon source for xylanase production by Streptomyces thermocarboxydus TKU045. The optimal media for xylanase production was 2% (w/v) WBP, 1.50% (w/v) KNO3, 0.05% (w/v) MgSO4, and 0.10% (w/v) K2HPO4, and the optimal culture conditions were 50 mL (in a 250 mL-volume Erlenmeyer flask), initial pH 9.0, 37 °C, 125 rpm, and 48 h. Accordingly, the highest xylanase activity was 6.393 ± 0.130 U/mL, 6.9-fold higher than that from un-optimized conditions. S. thermocarboxydus TKU045 secreted at least four xylanases with the molecular weights of >180, 36, 29, and 27 kDa when cultured on the WBP-containing medium. The enzyme cocktail produced by S. thermocarboxydus TKU045 was optimally active over a broad range of temperature and pH (40–70 °C and pH 5–8, respectively) and could hydrolyze birchwood xylan to produce xylobiose as the major product. The obtained xylose oligosaccharide (XOS) were investigated for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity and the growth effect of lactic acid bacteria. Finally, the solid waste from the WBP fermentation using S. thermocarboxydus TKU045 revealed the high adsorption of Congo red, Red 7, and Methyl blue. Thus, S. thermocarboxydus TKU045 could be a potential strain to utilize wheat bran to produce xylanases for XOS preparation and dye adsorbent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Agriculture and Food Science)
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12 pages, 1931 KiB  
Article
Densification: A Route towards Enhanced Thermal Conductivity of Epoxy Composites
by Sasan Moradi, Frida Román, Yolanda Calventus and John M. Hutchinson
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020286 - 17 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2266
Abstract
When an amorphous polymer is cooled under pressure from above its glass transition temperature to room temperature, and then the pressure is released, this results in a densified state of the glass. This procedure applied to an epoxy composite system filled with boron [...] Read more.
When an amorphous polymer is cooled under pressure from above its glass transition temperature to room temperature, and then the pressure is released, this results in a densified state of the glass. This procedure applied to an epoxy composite system filled with boron nitride (BN) particles has been shown to increase the density of the composite, reduce its enthalpy, and, most importantly, significantly enhance its thermal conductivity. An epoxy-BN composite with 58 wt% BN platelets of average size 30 µm has been densified by curing under pressures of up to 2.0 MPa and then cooling the cured sample to room temperature before releasing the pressure. It is found that the thermal conductivity is increased from approximately 3 W/mK for a sample cured at ambient pressure to approximately 7 W/mK; in parallel, the density increases from 1.55 to 1.72 ± 0.01 g/cm3. This densification process is much more effective in enhancing the thermal conductivity than is either simply applying pressure to consolidate the epoxy composite mixture before curing or applying pressure during cure but then removing the pressure before cooling to room temperature; this last procedure results in a thermal conductivity of approximately 5 W/mK. Furthermore, it has been shown that the densification and corresponding effect on the thermal conductivity is reversible; it can be removed by heating above the glass transition temperature and then cooling without pressure and can be reinstated by again heating above the glass transition temperature and then cooling under pressure. This implies that a densified state and an enhanced thermal conductivity can be induced even in a composite prepared without the use of pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Inorganic Composites for Special Applications)
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15 pages, 7733 KiB  
Article
Significantly Improved Dielectric Performance of Poly(1-butene)-Based Composite Films via Filling Polydopamine Modified Ba(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3-Coated Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Nanoparticles
by Lingfei Li, Qiu Sun, Xiangqun Chen, Zhaohua Jiang and Yongjun Xu
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020285 - 17 Jan 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2047
Abstract
The low dielectric constant of the nonpolar polymer poly(1-butene) (PB-1) limits its application as a diaphragm element in energy storage capacitors. In this work, Ba(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3-coated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (BZT@MWCNTs) were first prepared by using the sol–gel hydrothermal [...] Read more.
The low dielectric constant of the nonpolar polymer poly(1-butene) (PB-1) limits its application as a diaphragm element in energy storage capacitors. In this work, Ba(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3-coated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (BZT@MWCNTs) were first prepared by using the sol–gel hydrothermal method and then modified with polydopamine (PDA) via noncovalent polymerization. Finally, PB-1 matrix composite films filled with PDA-modified BZT@MWCNTs nanoparticles were fabricated through a solution-casting method. Results indicated that the PDA-modified BZT@MWCNTs had good dispersion and binding force in the PB-1 matrix. These characteristics improved the dielectric and energy storage performances of the films. Specifically, the PDA-modified 10 vol% BZT@ 0.5 vol% MWCNTs/PB-1 composite film exhibited the best dielectric performance. At 1 kHz, the dielectric constant of this film was 25.43, which was 12.7 times that of pure PB-1 films. Moreover, its dielectric loss was 0.0077. Furthermore, under the weak electric field of 210 MV·m−1, the highest energy density of the PDA-modified 10 vol% BZT@ 0.5 vol% MWCNTs/PB-1 composite film was 4.57 J·cm−3, which was over 3.5 times that of PB-1 film (≈1.3 J·cm−3 at 388 MV·m−1). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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10 pages, 2143 KiB  
Article
Feasibility of Predicting Static Dielectric Constants of Polymer Materials: A Density Functional Theory Method
by Zheng Tang, Chaofan Chang, Feng Bao, Lei Tian, Huichao Liu, Mingliang Wang, Caizhen Zhu and Jian Xu
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020284 - 17 Jan 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3217
Abstract
The rapid development of electronic devices with high integration levels, a light weight, and a multifunctional performance has fostered the design of novel polymer materials with low dielectric constants, which is crucial for the electronic packaging and encapsulation of these electronic components. Theoretical [...] Read more.
The rapid development of electronic devices with high integration levels, a light weight, and a multifunctional performance has fostered the design of novel polymer materials with low dielectric constants, which is crucial for the electronic packaging and encapsulation of these electronic components. Theoretical studies are more efficient and cost-effective for screening potential polymer materials with low dielectric constants than experimental investigations. In this study, we used a molecular density functional theory (DFT) approach combined with the B3LYP functional at the 6-31+G(d, p) basis set to validate the feasibility of predicting static dielectric constants of the polymer materials. First, we assessed the influence of the basis sets on the polarizability. Furthermore, the changes of polarizability, polarizability per monomer unit, and differences in polarizability between the consecutive polymer chains as a function of the number of monomers were summarized and discussed. We outlined a similar behavior for the volume of the polymers as well. Finally, we simulated dielectric constants of three typical polymer materials, polyethylene (PE), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and polystyrene (PS), by combining with the Clausius–Mossotti equation. The simulated results showed excellent agreement with experimental data from the literature, suggesting that this theoretical DFT method has great potential for the molecular design and development of novel polymer materials with low dielectric constants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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