Remote Sensing

20 pages, 86762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Regional Model for Predicting Tropospheric Delay and Weighted Mean Temperature in China Based on GRAPES_MESO Forecasting Products

by Liying Cao, Bao Zhang, Junyu Li, Yibin Yao, Lilong Liu, Qishun Ran and Zhaohui Xiong

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2644; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132644 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2666

Abstract

Accurate tropospheric delay (TD) and weighted mean temperature (Tm) are important for Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning and GNSS meteorology. For this purpose, plenty of empirical models have been built to provide estimates of TD and Tm. However, these models cannot resolve [...] Read more.

Accurate tropospheric delay (TD) and weighted mean temperature (Tm) are important for Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning and GNSS meteorology. For this purpose, plenty of empirical models have been built to provide estimates of TD and Tm. However, these models cannot resolve TD and Tm variations at synoptic timescales since they only model the average annual, semi-annual, and/or daily variations. As a result, the existed empirical models cannot perform well under extreme weather conditions. To address this limitation, we propose to estimate Zenith Hydrostatic Delay (ZHD), Zenith Wet Delay (ZWD), and Tm directly from the stratified numerical weather forecasting products of the mesoscale version of the Global/Regional Assimilation and PrEdiction System (GRAPES_MESO) of China. The GRAPES_MESO forecasting data has a temporal resolution of 3 h, which provides the opportunity to resolve the synoptic variation. However, it is found that the estimated ZWD and Tm exhibit apparent systematic deviation from in situ observation-based estimates, which is due to the inherent biases in the GRAPES_MESO data. To solve this problem, we propose to correct these biases using a linear model and a spherical cap harmonic model. The estimates after correction are termed as the “CTropGrid” products. When validated by the radiosonde data, the CTropGrid product has biases of 1.5 mm, −0.7 mm, and −0.1 K, and Root Mean Square (RMS) error of 8.9 mm, 20.2 mm, and 1.5 K for ZHD, ZWD, and Tm. Compared to the widely used GPT2w model, the CTropGrid products have improved the accuracies of ZHD, ZWD, and Tm by 11.9%, 55.6%, and 60.5% in terms of RMS. When validating the Zenith Tropospheric Delay (ZTD) products (the sum of ZHD and ZWD) using the IGS ZTD data, the CTropGrid ZTD has a bias of −0.7 mm and an RMS of 35.8 mm, which is 22.7% better than the GPT2w model in terms of RMS. Besides the accuracy improvements, the CTropGrid products well model the synoptic-scale variations of ZHD, ZWD, and Tm. Compared to the existing empirical models that only capture the tidal (seasonal and/or diurnal) variations, the CTropGrid products capture well the non-tidal variations of ZHD, ZWD, and Tm, which enhances the tropospheric delay corrections and GNSS water vapor monitoring at synoptic timescales. Therefore, the CTropGrid product is an important progress in GNSS positioning and GNSS meteorology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Modelling and Monitoring Using GNSS)

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23 pages, 14397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Collision Avoidance on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Using Neural Network Pipelines and Flow Clustering Techniques

by Dário Pedro, João P. Matos-Carvalho, José M. Fonseca and André Mora

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2643; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132643 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4249

Abstract

Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles (UAV), while not a recent invention, have recently acquired a prominent position in many industries, and they are increasingly used not only by avid customers, but also in high-demand technical use-cases, and will have a significant societal effect in the [...] Read more.

Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles (UAV), while not a recent invention, have recently acquired a prominent position in many industries, and they are increasingly used not only by avid customers, but also in high-demand technical use-cases, and will have a significant societal effect in the coming years. However, the use of UAVs is fraught with significant safety threats, such as collisions with dynamic obstacles (other UAVs, birds, or randomly thrown objects). This research focuses on a safety problem that is often overlooked due to a lack of technology and solutions to address it: collisions with non-stationary objects. A novel approach is described that employs deep learning techniques to solve the computationally intensive problem of real-time collision avoidance with dynamic objects using off-the-shelf commercial vision sensors. The suggested approach’s viability was corroborated by multiple experiments, firstly in simulation, and afterward in a concrete real-world case, that consists of dodging a thrown ball. A novel video dataset was created and made available for this purpose, and transfer learning was also tested, with positive results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Information Retrieval from Remote Sensing Images)

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24 pages, 10147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization in VHTS Satellite System Design with Irregular Beam Coverage for Non-Uniform Traffic Distribution

by Flor G. Ortiz-Gomez, Miguel A. Salas-Natera, Ramón Martínez and Salvador Landeros-Ayala

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2642; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132642 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3763

Abstract

Very High Throughput Satellites (VHTS) have a pivotal role in complementing terrestrial networks to increase traffic demand. VHTS systems currently assume a uniform distribution of traffic in the service area, but in a real system, traffic demands are not uniform and are dynamic. [...] Read more.

Very High Throughput Satellites (VHTS) have a pivotal role in complementing terrestrial networks to increase traffic demand. VHTS systems currently assume a uniform distribution of traffic in the service area, but in a real system, traffic demands are not uniform and are dynamic. A possible solution is to use flexible payloads, but the cost of the design increases considerably. On the other hand, a fixed payload that uses irregular beam coverage depending on traffic demand allows maintaining the cost of a fixed payload while minimizing the error between offered and required capacity. This paper presents a proposal for optimizing irregular beams coverage and beam pattern, minimizing the costs per Gbps in orbit, the Normalized Coverage Error, and Offered Capacity Error per beam. We present the analysis and performance for the case study and compare it with a previous algorithm for a uniform coverage area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Communication)

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19 pages, 40305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Investigation of Radiometric Interactions between Snowfall, Snow Cover, and Cloud Liquid Water over Land

by Zeinab Takbiri, Lisa Milani, Clement Guilloteau and Efi Foufoula-Georgiou

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2641; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132641 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2521

Abstract

Falling snow alters its own microwave signatures when it begins to accumulate on the ground, making retrieval of snowfall challenging. This paper investigates the effects of snow-cover depth and cloud liquid water content on microwave signatures of terrestrial snowfall using reanalysis data and [...] Read more.

Falling snow alters its own microwave signatures when it begins to accumulate on the ground, making retrieval of snowfall challenging. This paper investigates the effects of snow-cover depth and cloud liquid water content on microwave signatures of terrestrial snowfall using reanalysis data and multi-annual observations by the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) core satellite with particular emphasis on the 89 and 166 GHz channels. It is found that over shallow snow cover (snow water equivalent (SWE)

\leq 100

kg m^{- 2}

) and low values of cloud liquid water path (LWP 100–150

g m^{- 2}

), the scattering of light snowfall (intensities

\leq 0.5

mm h^{- 1}

) is detectable only at frequency 166 GHz, while for higher snowfall rates, the signal can also be detected at 89 GHz. However, when SWE exceeds 200

kg m^{- 2}

and the LWP is greater than 100–150

g m^{- 2}

, the emission from the increased liquid water content in snowing clouds becomes the only surrogate microwave signal of snowfall that is stronger at frequency 89 than 166 GHz. The results also reveal that over high latitudes above 60°N where the SWE is greater than 200

kg m^{- 2}

and LWP is lower than 100–150

g m^{- 2}

, the snowfall microwave signal could not be detected with GPM without considering a priori data about SWE and LWP. Our findings provide quantitative insights for improving retrieval of snowfall in particular over snow-covered terrain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Precipitation at the Mid- to High-Latitudes)

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21 pages, 4742 KiB

Open AccessReview

Shortwave Radiance to Irradiance Conversion for Earth Radiation Budget Satellite Observations: A Review

by Jake J. Gristey, Wenying Su, Norman G. Loeb, Thomas H. Vonder Haar, Florian Tornow, K. Sebastian Schmidt, Maria Z. Hakuba, Peter Pilewskie and Jacqueline E. Russell

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2640; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132640 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3390

Abstract

Observing the Earth radiation budget (ERB) from satellites is crucial for monitoring and understanding Earth’s climate. One of the major challenges for ERB observations, particularly for reflected shortwave radiation, is the conversion of the measured radiance to the more energetically relevant quantity of [...] Read more.

Observing the Earth radiation budget (ERB) from satellites is crucial for monitoring and understanding Earth’s climate. One of the major challenges for ERB observations, particularly for reflected shortwave radiation, is the conversion of the measured radiance to the more energetically relevant quantity of radiative flux, or irradiance. This conversion depends on the solar-viewing geometry and the scene composition associated with each instantaneous observation. We first outline the theoretical basis for algorithms to convert shortwave radiance to irradiance, most commonly known as empirical angular distribution models (ADMs). We then review the progression from early ERB satellite observations that applied relatively simple ADMs, to current ERB satellite observations that apply highly sophisticated ADMs. A notable development is the dramatic increase in the number of scene types, made possible by both the extended observational record and the enhanced scene information now available from collocated imager information. Compared with their predecessors, current shortwave ADMs result in a more consistent average albedo as a function of viewing zenith angle and lead to more accurate instantaneous and mean regional irradiance estimates. One implication of the increased complexity is that the algorithms may not be directly applicable to observations with insufficient accompanying imager information, or for existing or new satellite instruments where detailed scene information is not available. Recent advances that complement and build on the base of current approaches, including machine learning applications and semi-physical calculations, are highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Remote Sensing)

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16 pages, 8503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Grapevine Crop Coefficient Using a Multispectral Camera on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

by Deepak Gautam, Bertram Ostendorf and Vinay Pagay

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2639; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132639 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3481

Abstract

Crop water status and irrigation requirements are of great importance to the horticultural industry due to changing climatic conditions leading to high evaporative demands, drought and water scarcity in semi-arid and arid regions worldwide. Irrigation scheduling strategies based on evapotranspiration (ET), such as [...] Read more.

Crop water status and irrigation requirements are of great importance to the horticultural industry due to changing climatic conditions leading to high evaporative demands, drought and water scarcity in semi-arid and arid regions worldwide. Irrigation scheduling strategies based on evapotranspiration (ET), such as regulated deficit irrigation, requires the estimation of seasonal crop coefficients (k_c). The ET-driven irrigation decisions for grapevines rely on the sampling of several k_c values from each irrigation zone. Here, we present an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based technique to estimate k_c at the single vine level in order to capture the spatial variability of water requirements in a commercial vineyard located in South Australia. A UAV carrying a multispectral sensor is used to extract the spectral, as well as the structural, information of Cabernet Sauvignon grapevines. The spectral and structural information, acquired at the various phenological stages of the vine through two seasons, is used to model k_c using univariate (simple linear), multivariate (generalised linear and additive) and machine learning (convolution neural network and random forest) model frameworks. The structural information (e.g., canopy top view area) had the strongest correlation with k_c throughout the season (p ≤ 0.001; Pearson R = 0.56), while the spectral indices (e.g., normalised indices) turned less-sensitive post véraison—the onset of ripening in grapes. Combining structural and spectral information improved the model’s performance. Among the investigated predictive models, the random forest predicted k_c with the highest accuracy (R²: 0.675, root mean square error: 0.062, and mean absolute error: 0.047). This UAV-based approach improves the precision of irrigation by capturing the spatial variability of k_c within a vineyard. Combined with an energy balance model, the water needs of a vineyard can be computed on a weekly or sub-weekly basis for precision irrigation. The UAV-based characterisation of k_c can further enhance the water management and irrigation zoning by matching the infrastructure with the spatial variability of the irrigation demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Crop Water Stress Detection and Irrigation Management)

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23 pages, 27177 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Neural Network Utilizing Remote Sensing Datasets for Flood Hazard Susceptibility Mapping in Brisbane, Australia

by Bahareh Kalantar, Naonori Ueda, Vahideh Saeidi, Saeid Janizadeh, Fariborz Shabani, Kourosh Ahmadi and Farzin Shabani

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2638; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132638 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 4988

Abstract

Large damages and losses resulting from floods are widely reported across the globe. Thus, the identification of the flood-prone zones on a flood susceptibility map is very essential. To do so, 13 conditioning factors influencing the flood occurrence in Brisbane river catchment in [...] Read more.

Large damages and losses resulting from floods are widely reported across the globe. Thus, the identification of the flood-prone zones on a flood susceptibility map is very essential. To do so, 13 conditioning factors influencing the flood occurrence in Brisbane river catchment in Australia (i.e., topographic, water-related, geological, and land use factors) were acquired for further processing and modeling. In this study, artificial neural networks (ANN), deep learning neural networks (DLNN), and optimized DLNN using particle swarm optimization (PSO) were exploited to predict and estimate the susceptible areas to the future floods. The significance of the conditioning factors analysis for the region highlighted that altitude, distance from river, sediment transport index (STI), and slope played the most important roles, whereas stream power index (SPI) did not contribute to the hazardous situation. The performance of the models was evaluated against the statistical tests such as sensitivity, specificity, the area under curve (AUC), and true skill statistic (TSS). DLNN and PSO-DLNN models obtained the highest values of sensitivity (0.99) for the training stage to compare with ANN. Moreover, the validations of specificity and TSS for PSO-DLNN recorded the highest values of 0.98 and 0.90, respectively, compared with those obtained by ANN and DLNN. The best accuracies by AUC were evaluated in PSO-DLNN (0.99 in training and 0.98 in testing datasets), followed by DLNN and ANN. Therefore, the optimized PSO-DLNN proved its robustness to compare with other methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving Disaster Damage and Loss Assessments by Modeling and Remote Sensing Techniques)

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19 pages, 8877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Maximum Likelihood Estimation Based Nonnegative Matrix Factorization for Hyperspectral Unmixing

by Qin Jiang, Yifei Dong, Jiangtao Peng, Mei Yan and Yi Sun

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2637; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132637 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2212

Abstract

Hyperspectral unmixing (HU) is a research hotspot of hyperspectral remote sensing technology. As a classical HU method, the nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF) unmixing method can decompose an observed hyperspectral data matrix into the product of two nonnegative matrices, i.e., endmember and abundance matrices. [...] Read more.

Hyperspectral unmixing (HU) is a research hotspot of hyperspectral remote sensing technology. As a classical HU method, the nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF) unmixing method can decompose an observed hyperspectral data matrix into the product of two nonnegative matrices, i.e., endmember and abundance matrices. Because the objective function of NMF is the traditional least-squares function, NMF is sensitive to noise. In order to improve the robustness of NMF, this paper proposes a maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) based NMF model (MLENMF) for unmixing of hyperspectral images (HSIs), which substitutes the least-squares objective function in traditional NMF by a robust MLE-based loss function. Experimental results on a simulated and two widely used real hyperspectral data sets demonstrate the superiority of our MLENMF over existing NMF methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning-Based Hyperspectral Information Extraction: Algorithms and Applications)

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15 pages, 5080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Attitude Model, Phase Wind-Up and Phase Center Variation on Precise Orbit and Clock Offset Determination of GRACE-FO and CentiSpace-1

by Junjun Yuan, Shanshi Zhou, Xiaogong Hu, Long Yang, Jianfeng Cao, Kai Li and Min Liao

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2636; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132636 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2292

Abstract

Currently, low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites are attracting great attention in the navigation enhancement field because of their stronger navigation signal and faster elevation variation than medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites. To meet the need for real-time and precise positioning, navigation and timing [...] Read more.

Currently, low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites are attracting great attention in the navigation enhancement field because of their stronger navigation signal and faster elevation variation than medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites. To meet the need for real-time and precise positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) services, the first and most difficult task is correcting errors in the process of precise LEO orbit and clock offset determination as much as possible. Launched in 29 September 2018, the CentiSpace-1 (CS01) satellite is the first experimental satellite of LEO-based navigation enhancement system constellations developed by Beijing Future Navigation Technology Co. Ltd. To analyze the impact of the attitude model, carrier phase wind-up (PWU) and phase center variation (PCV) on precise LEO orbit and clock offset in an LEO-based navigation system that needs extremely high precision, we not only select the CS01 satellite as a testing spacecraft, but also the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO). First, the dual-frequency global positioning system (GPS) data are collected and the data quality is assessed by analyzing the performance of tracking GPS satellites, multipath errors and signal to noise ratio (SNR) variation. The analysis results show that the data quality of GRACE-FO is slightly better than CS01. With residual analysis and overlapping comparison, a further orbit quality improvement is possible when we further correct the errors of the attitude model, PWU and PCV in this paper. The final three-dimensional (3D) root mean square (RMS) of the overlapping orbit for GRACE-FO and CS01 is 2.08 cm and 1.72 cm, respectively. Meanwhile, errors of the attitude model, PWU and PCV can be absorbed partly in the clock offset and these errors can generate one nonnegligible effect, which can reach 0.02~0.05 ns. The experiment results indicate that processing the errors of the attitude model, PWU and PCV carefully can improve the consistency of precise LEO orbit and clock offset and raise the performance of an LEO-based navigation enhancement system. Full article

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11 pages, 17375 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Pre-Orientale Southwest Peak-Ring Basin: Gravity Structure, Geologic Characteristics, and Influence on Orientale Basin Ring Formation and Ejecta Emplacement

by Jinzhu Ji, James W. Head and Jianzhong Liu

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2635; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132635 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1873

Abstract

The Orientale impact basin is the youngest and most well-preserved of the lunar multi-ring basins. The generally well-preserved ring structures and basin facies are distinctly anomalous in the southwestern quadrant; the outer Cordillera ring extends significantly outward, the Outer and Inner Rook mountain [...] Read more.

The Orientale impact basin is the youngest and most well-preserved of the lunar multi-ring basins. The generally well-preserved ring structures and basin facies are distinctly anomalous in the southwestern quadrant; the outer Cordillera ring extends significantly outward, the Outer and Inner Rook mountain rings are more poorly developed and show anomalous characteristics, and the Montes Rook Formation varies widely from its characteristics elsewhere in the basin interior. Based on the gravity, image, and topography data, we confirmed that the southwest region of the Orientale basin represents the location of a pre-existing ~320 km rim–crest diameter peak–ring basin centered at 108.8°W, 28.4°S, and characterized by an ~170 km peak–ring diameter. We model the structure and morphology of this large pre-Orientale peak–ring basin (about one-third the diameter of Orientale) and show that its presence and negative relief had a distinctive influence on the development of the basin rings (disrupting the otherwise generally circular continuity and causing radial excursions in their locations) and the emplacement of ejecta (causing filling of the low region represented by the peak–ring basin, creating anomalous surface textures, and resulting in late stage ejecta movement in response to the pre-existing peak–ring basin topography. The location and preservation of the peak–ring basin Bouguer anomaly strongly suggest that the rim crest of the Orientale basin excavation cavity lies at or within the Outer Rook Mountain ring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Remote Sensing and Applications)

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19 pages, 12006 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating Heat Stress of Coal Gangue Spontaneous Combustion on Vegetation Using Alfalfa Leaf Water Content Spectral Features as Indicators

by Qiyuan Wang, Yanling Zhao, Feifei Yang, Tao Liu, Wu Xiao and Haiyuan Sun

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2634; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132634 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2187

Abstract

Vegetation heat-stress assessment in the reclamation areas of coal gangue dumps is of great significance in controlling spontaneous combustion; through a temperature gradient experiment, we collected leaf spectra and water content data on alfalfa. We then obtained the optimal spectral features of appropriate [...] Read more.

Vegetation heat-stress assessment in the reclamation areas of coal gangue dumps is of great significance in controlling spontaneous combustion; through a temperature gradient experiment, we collected leaf spectra and water content data on alfalfa. We then obtained the optimal spectral features of appropriate leaf water content indicators through time series analysis, correlation analysis, and Lasso regression analysis. A spectral feature-based long short-term memory (SF-LSTM) model is proposed to estimate alfalfa’s heat stress level; the live fuel moisture content (LFMC) varies significantly with time and has high regularity. Correlation analysis of the raw spectrum, first-derivative spectrum, spectral reflectance indices, and leaf water content data shows that LFMC and spectral data were the most strongly correlated. Combined with Lasso regression analysis, the optimal spectral features were the first-derivative spectral value at 1661 nm (abbreviated as FDS (1661)), RVI (1525,1771), DVI (1412,740), and NDVI (1447,1803). When the classification strategies were divided into three categories and the time sequence length of the spectral features was set to five consecutive monitoring dates, the SF-LSTM model had the highest accuracy in estimating the heat stress level in alfalfa; the results provide an important theoretical basis and technical support for vegetation heat-stress assessment in coal gangue dump reclamation areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensing in Agriculture and Vegetation)

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20 pages, 14653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Continuous Sensing of Water Temperature in a Reservoir with Grid Inversion Method Based on Acoustic Tomography System

by Haocai Huang, Shijie Xu, Xinyi Xie, Yong Guo, Luwen Meng and Guangming Li

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2633; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132633 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2492

Abstract

The continuous sensing of water parameters is of great importance to the study of dynamic processes in the ocean, coastal areas, and inland waters. Conventional fixed-point and ship-based observing systems cannot provide sufficient sampling of rapidly varying processes, especially for small-scale phenomena. Acoustic [...] Read more.

The continuous sensing of water parameters is of great importance to the study of dynamic processes in the ocean, coastal areas, and inland waters. Conventional fixed-point and ship-based observing systems cannot provide sufficient sampling of rapidly varying processes, especially for small-scale phenomena. Acoustic tomography can achieve the sensing of water parameter variations over time by continuously using sound wave propagation information. A multi-station acoustic tomography experiment was carried out in a reservoir with three sound stations for water temperature observation. Specifically, multi-path propagation sound waves were identified with ray tracing using high-precision topography data obtained with ship-mounted ADCP. A new grid inverse method is proposed in this paper for water temperature profiling along a vertical slice. The progression of water temperature variation in three vertical slices between acoustic stations was mapped by solving an inverse problem. The reliability and adaptability of the grid method developed in this research are verified by comparison with layer-averaged water temperature results. The grid method can be further developed for the 3D mapping of water parameters over time, especially in small-scale water areas, where sufficient multi-path propagation sound waves can be obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Coastal Waters, Land Use/Cover, Lakes, Rivers and Watersheds)

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24 pages, 4986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Technique for Modeling Ecosystem Health Condition: A Case Study in Saudi Arabia

by Javed Mallick, Saeed AlQadhi, Swapan Talukdar, Biswajeet Pradhan, Ahmed Ali Bindajam, Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam and Amal Saad Dajam

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2632; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132632 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3134

Abstract

The present paper proposes a novel fuzzy-VORS (vigor, organization, resilience, ecosystem services) model by integrating fuzzy logic and a VORS model to predict ecosystem health conditions in Abha city of Saudi Arabia from the past to the future. In this study, a support [...] Read more.

The present paper proposes a novel fuzzy-VORS (vigor, organization, resilience, ecosystem services) model by integrating fuzzy logic and a VORS model to predict ecosystem health conditions in Abha city of Saudi Arabia from the past to the future. In this study, a support vector machine (SVM) classifier was utilized to classify the land use land cover (LULC) maps for 1990, 2000, and 2018. The LULCs dynamics in 1990–2000, 2000–2018, and 1990–2018 were computed using delta (Δ) change and Markovian transitional probability matrix. The future LULC map for 2028 was predicted using the artificial neural network-cellular automata model (ANN-CA). The machine learning algorithms, such as random forest (RF), classification and regression tree (CART), and probability distribution function (PDF) were utilized to perform sensitivity analysis. Pearson’s correlation technique was used to explore the correlation between the predicted models and their driving variables. The ecosystem health conditions for 1990–2028 were predicted by integrating the fuzzy inference system with the VORS model. The results of LULC maps showed that urban areas increased by 334.4% between 1990 and 2018. Except for dense vegetation, all the natural resources and generated ecosystem services have been decreased significantly due to the rapid and continuous urbanization process. A future LULC map (2028) showed that the built-up area would be 343.72 km². The new urban area in 2028 would be 169 km². All techniques for sensitivity analysis showed that proximity to urban areas, vegetation, and scrubland are highly sensitive to land suitability models to simulate and predict LULC maps of 2018 and 2028. Global sensitivity analysis showed that fragmentation or organization was the most sensitive parameter for ecosystem health conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Remote Sensing)

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24 pages, 5729 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Comparison of Multi-Temporal RGB and Multispectral UAS Imagery for Tree Species Classification in Heterogeneous New Hampshire Forests

by Heather Grybas and Russell G. Congalton

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2631; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132631 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3665

Abstract

Unmanned aerial systems (UASs) have recently become an affordable means to map forests at the species level, but research into the performance of different classification methodologies and sensors is necessary so users can make informed choices that maximize accuracy. This study investigated whether [...] Read more.

Unmanned aerial systems (UASs) have recently become an affordable means to map forests at the species level, but research into the performance of different classification methodologies and sensors is necessary so users can make informed choices that maximize accuracy. This study investigated whether multi-temporal UAS data improved the classified accuracy of 14 species examined the optimal time-window for data collection, and compared the performance of a consumer-grade RGB sensor to that of a multispectral sensor. A time series of UAS data was collected from early spring to mid-summer and a sequence of mono-temporal and multi-temporal classifications were carried out. Kappa comparisons were conducted to ascertain whether the multi-temporal classifications significantly improved accuracy and whether there were significant differences between the RGB and multispectral classifications. The multi-temporal classification approach significantly improved accuracy; however, there was no significant benefit when more than three dates were used. Mid- to late spring imagery produced the highest accuracies, potentially due to high spectral heterogeneity between species and homogeneity within species during this time. The RGB sensor exhibited significantly higher accuracies, probably due to the blue band, which was found to be very important for classification accuracy and lacking in the multispectral sensor employed here. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Estimating and Monitoring Forest Structure Using Remote Sensing Techniques)

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28 pages, 21405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation and Hydrological Application of a Data Fusing Method of Multi-Source Precipitation Products-A Case Study over Tuojiang River Basin

by Yao Li, Wensheng Wang, Guoqing Wang and Siyi Yu

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2630; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132630 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2376

Abstract

Precipitation is an essential driving factor of hydrological models. Its temporal and spatial resolution and reliability directly affect the accuracy of hydrological modeling. Acquiring accurate areal precipitation needs substantial ground rainfall stations in space. In many basins, ground rainfall stations are sparse and [...] Read more.

Precipitation is an essential driving factor of hydrological models. Its temporal and spatial resolution and reliability directly affect the accuracy of hydrological modeling. Acquiring accurate areal precipitation needs substantial ground rainfall stations in space. In many basins, ground rainfall stations are sparse and uneven, so real-time satellite precipitation products (SPPs) have become an important supplement to ground-gauged precipitation (GGP). A multi-source precipitation fusion method suitable for the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model has been proposed in this paper. First, the multivariate inverse distance similarity method (MIDSM) was proposed to search for the optimal representative precipitation points of GGP and SPPs in sub-basins. Subsequently, the correlation-coefficient-based weighted average method (CCBWA) was presented and applied to calculate the fused multi-source precipitation product (FMSPP), which combined GGP and multiple satellite precipitation products. The effectiveness of the FMSPP was proven over the Tuojiang River Basin. In the case study, three SPPs were chosen as the satellite precipitation sources, namely the Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR), Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Project (TRMM), and Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Network Climate Data Record (PERSIANN-CDR). The evaluation indicators illustrated that FMSPP could capture the occurrence of rainfall events very well, with a maximum Probability of Detection (POD) and Critical Success Index (CSI) of 0.92 and 0.83, respectively. Furthermore, its correlation with GGP, changing in the range of 0.84–0.96, was higher in most sub-basins on the monthly scale than the other three SPPs. These results demonstrated that the performance of FMSPP was the best compared with the original SPPs. Finally, FMSPP was applied in the SWAT model and was found to effectively drive the SWAT model in contrast with a single precipitation source. The FMSPP manifested the highest accuracy in hydrological modeling, with the Coefficient of Determination (R²) of 0.84, Nash Sutcliff (NS) of 0.83, and Percent Bias (PBIAS) of only −1.9%. Full article

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29 pages, 7735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Change Detection in Urban Point Clouds: An Experimental Comparison with Simulated 3D Datasets

by Iris de Gélis, Sébastien Lefèvre and Thomas Corpetti

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2629; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132629 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4044

Abstract

In the context of rapid urbanization, monitoring the evolution of cities is crucial. To do so, 3D change detection and characterization is of capital importance since, unlike 2D images, 3D data contain vertical information of utmost importance to monitoring city evolution (that occurs [...] Read more.

In the context of rapid urbanization, monitoring the evolution of cities is crucial. To do so, 3D change detection and characterization is of capital importance since, unlike 2D images, 3D data contain vertical information of utmost importance to monitoring city evolution (that occurs along both horizontal and vertical axes). Urban 3D change detection has thus received growing attention, and various methods have been published on the topic. Nevertheless, no quantitative comparison on a public dataset has been reported yet. This study presents an experimental comparison of six methods: three traditional (difference of DSMs, C2C and M3C2), one machine learning with hand-crafted features (a random forest model with a stability feature) and two deep learning (feed-forward and Siamese architectures). In order to compare these methods, we prepared five sub-datasets containing simulated pairs of 3D annotated point clouds with different characteristics: from high to low resolution, with various levels of noise. The methods have been tested on each sub-dataset for binary and multi-class segmentation. For supervised methods, we also assessed the transfer learning capacity and the influence of the training set size. The methods we used provide various kinds of results (2D pixels, 2D patches or 3D points), and each of them is impacted by the resolution of the PCs. However, while the performances of deep learning methods highly depend on the size of the training set, they seem to be less impacted by training on datasets with different characteristics. Oppositely, conventional machine learning methods exhibit stable results, even with smaller training sets, but embed low transfer learning capacities. While the main changes in our datasets were usually identified, there were still numerous instances of false detection, especially in dense urban areas, thereby calling for further development in this field. To assist such developments, we provide a public dataset composed of pairs of point clouds with different qualities together with their change-related annotations. This dataset was built with an original simulation tool which allows one to generate bi-temporal urban point clouds under various conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D City Modelling and Change Detection Using Remote Sensing Data)

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24 pages, 5912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Rotation-Invariant Optical and SAR Image Registration Algorithm Based on Deep and Gaussian Features

by Zeyi Li, Haitao Zhang and Yihang Huang

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2628; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132628 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3680

Abstract

Traditional feature matching methods of optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) used gradient are sensitive to non-linear radiation distortions (NRD) and the rotation between two images. To address this problem, this study presents a novel approach to solving the rigid body rotation problem [...] Read more.

Traditional feature matching methods of optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) used gradient are sensitive to non-linear radiation distortions (NRD) and the rotation between two images. To address this problem, this study presents a novel approach to solving the rigid body rotation problem by a two-step process. The first step proposes a deep learning neural network named RotNET to predict the rotation relationship between two images. The second step uses a local feature descriptor based on the Gaussian pyramid named Gaussian pyramid features of oriented gradients (GPOG) to match two images. The RotNET uses a neural network to analyze the gradient histogram of the two images to derive the rotation relationship between optical and SAR images. Subsequently, GPOG is depicted a keypoint by using the histogram of Gaussian pyramid to make one-cell block structure which is simpler and more stable than HOG structure-based descriptors. Finally, this paper designs experiments to prove that the gradient histogram of the optical and SAR images can reflect the rotation relationship and the RotNET can correctly predict them. The similarity map test and the image registration results obtained on experiments show that GPOG descriptor is robust to SAR speckle noise and NRD. Full article

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15 pages, 5763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Amazon Forest Restoration: Automatic Detection of Species from UAV Imagery

by Marks Melo Moura, Luiz Eduardo Soares de Oliveira, Carlos Roberto Sanquetta, Alexis Bastos, Midhun Mohan and Ana Paula Dalla Corte

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2627; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132627 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3620

Abstract

Precise assessments of forest species’ composition help analyze biodiversity patterns, estimate wood stocks, and improve carbon stock estimates. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the use of high-resolution images obtained from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for the identification of forest [...] Read more.

Precise assessments of forest species’ composition help analyze biodiversity patterns, estimate wood stocks, and improve carbon stock estimates. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the use of high-resolution images obtained from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for the identification of forest species in areas of forest regeneration in the Amazon. For this purpose, convolutional neural networks (CNN) were trained using the Keras–Tensorflow package with the faster_rcnn_inception_v2_pets model. Samples of six forest species were used to train CNN. From these, attempts were made with the number of thresholds, which is the cutoff value of the function; any value below this output is considered 0, and values above are treated as an output 1; that is, values above the value stipulated in the Threshold are considered as identified species. The results showed that the reduction in the threshold decreases the accuracy of identification, as well as the overlap of the polygons of species identification. However, in comparison with the data collected in the field, it was observed that there exists a high correlation between the trees identified by the CNN and those observed in the plots. The statistical metrics used to validate the classification results showed that CNN are able to identify species with accuracy above 90%. Based on our results, which demonstrate good accuracy and precision in the identification of species, we conclude that convolutional neural networks are an effective tool in classifying objects from UAV images. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Individual Tree Detection (ITD))

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18 pages, 3001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatially Modeling the Synergistic Impacts of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise on Coral Reefs in the South China Sea

by Xiuling Zuo, Fenzhen Su, Kefu Yu, Yinghui Wang, Qi Wang and Huisheng Wu

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2626; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132626 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4857

Abstract

Global warming and sea-level rise (SLR) induced by rising atmospheric CO₂ concentrations can cause coral bleaching, death, and submergence of the world’s coral reefs. Adopting the GIS and RS methods, we modeled how these two stressors combine to influence the future growth [...] Read more.

Global warming and sea-level rise (SLR) induced by rising atmospheric CO₂ concentrations can cause coral bleaching, death, and submergence of the world’s coral reefs. Adopting the GIS and RS methods, we modeled how these two stressors combine to influence the future growth of the atolls and table reefs of three archipelagoes in the South China Sea (SCS), based on geomorphic and ecological zones. A large-scale survey of the coral communities in Xisha Islands in 2014, Dongsha Islands in 2014–2016 and Nansha Islands in 2007 provided zone-specific process datasets on the range of reef accretion rates. Sea surface temperature and extreme (minimum and maximum) SLR data above 1985–2005 levels by 2100 in the SCS were derived from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) models forced with the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). Our model projected that: (1) the Xisha Islands and Dongsha Islands may have a better growth status, because the reef flat biotic sparse zone may be recolonized with hard coral and become a biotic dense zone; (2) the southern Nansha Islands reefs have a risk of stopping growing due to their earlier annual bleaching years. The increasing of water depths of these reefs is stronger in the RCP with more emissions. Our approach offers insights into the best-case and worst-case impacts of two global environmental pressures on potential future reef growth under a changing climate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GIS and RS in Ocean, Island and Coastal Zone)

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34 pages, 21929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Assessment of Landslide Risk Based on Susceptibility Mapping Using Random Forest and GeoDetector

by Yue Wang, Haijia Wen, Deliang Sun and Yuechen Li

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2625; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132625 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 4324

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate risk and discover the distribution law for landslides, so as to enrich landslide prevention theory and method. It first selected Fengjie County in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area as the study area. The work involved developing a landslide [...] Read more.

This study aims to evaluate risk and discover the distribution law for landslides, so as to enrich landslide prevention theory and method. It first selected Fengjie County in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area as the study area. The work involved developing a landslide risk map using hazard and vulnerability maps utilizing landslide dataset from 2001 to 2016. The landslide dataset was built from historical records, satellite images and extensive field surveys. Firstly, under four primary conditioning factors (i.e., topographic factors, geological factors, meteorological and hydrological factors and vegetation factors), 19 dominant factors were selected from 25 secondary conditioning factors based on the GeoDetector to form an evaluation factor library for the LSM. Subsequently, the random forest model (RF) was used to analyze landslide susceptibility. Then, the landslide hazard map was generated based on the landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) for the study region. Thereafter, landslide vulnerability assessment was conducted using key elements (economic, material, community) and the weights were provided based on expert judgment. Finally, when risk equals vulnerability multiplied by hazard, the region was categorized as very low, low, medium, high and very high risk level. The results showed that most landslides distribute on both sides of the reservoir bank and the primary and secondary tributaries in the study area, which showed a spatial distribution pattern of more north than south. Elevation, lithology and groundwater type are the main factors affecting landslides. Fengjie County landslide risk level is mostly low (accounting for 73.71% of the study area), but a small part is high and very high risk level (accounting for 2.5%). The overall risk level shows the spatial distribution characteristics of high risk in the central and eastern urban areas and low risk in the southern and northern high-altitude areas. Secondly, it is necessary to strictly control the key risk areas, and carry out prevention and control zoning management according to local conditions. The study is conducted for a specific region but can be extended to other areas around the investigated area. The developed landslide risk map can be considered by relevant government officials for the smooth implementation of management at the regional scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances to GIS for Sensing of Earth and Human Interaction)

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17 pages, 5260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Rapid Urban Sprawl on the Local Meteorological Observational Environment Based on Remote Sensing Images and GIS Technology

by Yanhao Zhang, Guicai Ning, Shihan Chen and Yuanjian Yang

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2624; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132624 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3497

Abstract

Rapid increases in urban sprawl affect the observational environment around meteorological stations by changing the land use/land cover (LULC) and the anthropogenic heat flux (AHF). Based on remote sensing images and GIS technology, we investigated the impact of changes in both LULC and [...] Read more.

Rapid increases in urban sprawl affect the observational environment around meteorological stations by changing the land use/land cover (LULC) and the anthropogenic heat flux (AHF). Based on remote sensing images and GIS technology, we investigated the impact of changes in both LULC and AHF induced by urbanization on the meteorological observational environment in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) during 2000–2018. Our results show that the observational environments around meteorological stations were significantly affected by the rapid expansion of built-up areas and the subsequent increase in the AHF, with a clear spatiotemporal variability. A positive correlation was observed between the proportion of built-up areas and the AHF around meteorological stations. The AHF was in the order urban stations > suburban stations > rural stations, but the increases in the AHF were greater around suburban and rural stations than around urban stations. Some meteorological stations need to be relocated to address the adverse effects induced by urbanization. The proportion of built-up areas and AHF around the new stations decreased significantly after relocation, weakening the urban heat island effect on the meteorological observations and substantially improving the observational environment. As a result, the observed daily mean temperature (relative humidity) decreased (increased) around the new stations after relocation. Our study comprehensively shows the impact of rapid urban sprawl on the observational environment around meteorological stations by assessing changes in both LULC and the AHF induced by urbanization. These findings provide scientific insights for the selection and construction of networks of meteorological stations and are therefore helpful in scientifically evaluating and correcting the impact of rapid urban sprawl on meteorological observations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Remote Sensing)

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18 pages, 12840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ADT-Det: Adaptive Dynamic Refined Single-Stage Transformer Detector for Arbitrary-Oriented Object Detection in Satellite Optical Imagery

by Yongbin Zheng, Peng Sun, Zongtan Zhou, Wanying Xu and Qiang Ren

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2623; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132623 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3426

Abstract

The detection of arbitrary-oriented and multi-scale objects in satellite optical imagery is an important task in remote sensing and computer vision. Despite significant research efforts, such detection remains largely unsolved due to the diversity of patterns in orientation, scale, aspect ratio, and visual [...] Read more.

The detection of arbitrary-oriented and multi-scale objects in satellite optical imagery is an important task in remote sensing and computer vision. Despite significant research efforts, such detection remains largely unsolved due to the diversity of patterns in orientation, scale, aspect ratio, and visual appearance; the dense distribution of objects; and extreme imbalances in categories. In this paper, we propose an adaptive dynamic refined single-stage transformer detector to address the aforementioned challenges, aiming to achieve high recall and speed. Our detector realizes rotated object detection with RetinaNet as the baseline. Firstly, we propose a feature pyramid transformer (FPT) to enhance feature extraction of the rotated object detection framework through a feature interaction mechanism. This is beneficial for the detection of objects with diverse patterns in terms of scale, aspect ratio, visual appearance, and dense distributions. Secondly, we design two special post-processing steps for rotated objects with arbitrary orientations, large aspect ratios and dense distributions. The output features of FPT are fed into post-processing steps. In the first step, it performs the preliminary regression of locations and angle anchors for the refinement step. In the refinement step, it performs adaptive feature refinement first and then gives the final object detection result precisely. The main architecture of the refinement step is dynamic feature refinement (DFR), which is proposed to adaptively adjust the feature map and reconstruct a new feature map for arbitrary-oriented object detection to alleviate the mismatches between rotated bounding boxes and axis-aligned receptive fields. Thirdly, the focus loss is adopted to deal with the category imbalance problem. Experiments on two challenging satellite optical imagery public datasets, DOTA and HRSC2016, demonstrate that the proposed ADT-Det detector achieves a state-of-the-art detection accuracy (79.95% mAP for DOTA and 93.47% mAP for HRSC2016) while running very fast (14.6 fps with a 600 × 600 input image size). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Object and Activity Detection in Remote Sensing Imagery)

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20 pages, 6011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Increasing the Effectiveness of Active Learning: Introducing Artificial Data Generation in Active Learning for Land Use/Land Cover Classification

by Joao Fonseca, Georgios Douzas and Fernando Bacao

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2619; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132619 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2543

Abstract

In remote sensing, Active Learning (AL) has become an important technique to collect informative ground truth data “on-demand” for supervised classification tasks. Despite its effectiveness, it is still significantly reliant on user interaction, which makes it both expensive and time consuming to implement. [...] Read more.

In remote sensing, Active Learning (AL) has become an important technique to collect informative ground truth data “on-demand” for supervised classification tasks. Despite its effectiveness, it is still significantly reliant on user interaction, which makes it both expensive and time consuming to implement. Most of the current literature focuses on the optimization of AL by modifying the selection criteria and the classifiers used. Although improvements in these areas will result in more effective data collection, the use of artificial data sources to reduce human–computer interaction remains unexplored. In this paper, we introduce a new component to the typical AL framework, the data generator, a source of artificial data to reduce the amount of user-labeled data required in AL. The implementation of the proposed AL framework is done using Geometric SMOTE as the data generator. We compare the new AL framework to the original one using similar acquisition functions and classifiers over three AL-specific performance metrics in seven benchmark datasets. We show that this modification of the AL framework significantly reduces cost and time requirements for a successful AL implementation in all of the datasets used in the experiment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning Techniques Applied to Geosciences and Remote Sensing)

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20 pages, 10510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EasyIDP: A Python Package for Intermediate Data Processing in UAV-Based Plant Phenotyping

by Haozhou Wang, Yulin Duan, Yun Shi, Yoichiro Kato, Seishi Ninomiya and Wei Guo

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2622; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132622 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5688

Abstract

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry techniques are widely used for field-based, high-throughput plant phenotyping nowadays, but some of the intermediate processes throughout the workflow remain manual. For example, geographic information system (GIS) software is used to manually assess [...] Read more.

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry techniques are widely used for field-based, high-throughput plant phenotyping nowadays, but some of the intermediate processes throughout the workflow remain manual. For example, geographic information system (GIS) software is used to manually assess the 2D/3D field reconstruction quality and cropping region of interests (ROIs) from the whole field. In addition, extracting phenotypic traits from raw UAV images is more competitive than directly from the digital orthomosaic (DOM). Currently, no easy-to-use tools are available to implement previous tasks for commonly used commercial SfM software, such as Pix4D and Agisoft Metashape. Hence, an open source software package called easy intermediate data processor (EasyIDP; MIT license) was developed to decrease the workload in intermediate data processing mentioned above. The functions of the proposed package include (1) an ROI cropping module, assisting in reconstruction quality assessment and cropping ROIs from the whole field, and (2) an ROI reversing module, projecting ROIs to relative raw images. The result showed that both cropping and reversing modules work as expected. Moreover, the effects of ROI height selection and reversed ROI position on raw images to reverse calculation were discussed. This tool shows great potential for decreasing workload in data annotation for machine learning applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Modelling and Mapping for Precision Agriculture)

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23 pages, 38891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Remote Sensing and a Markov-FLUS Model to Simulate Future Land Use Changes in Hokkaido, Japan

by Zhanzhuo Chen, Min Huang, Daoye Zhu and Orhan Altan

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2621; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132621 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 5853

Abstract

As the second largest island in Japan, Hokkaido provides precious land resources for the Japanese people. Meanwhile, as the food base of Japan, the gradual decrease of the agricultural population and more intensive agricultural practices on Hokkaido have led its arable land use [...] Read more.

As the second largest island in Japan, Hokkaido provides precious land resources for the Japanese people. Meanwhile, as the food base of Japan, the gradual decrease of the agricultural population and more intensive agricultural practices on Hokkaido have led its arable land use to change year by year, which has also caused changes to the whole land use pattern of the entire island of Hokkaido. To realize the sustainable use of land resources in Hokkaido, past and future changes in land use patterns must be investigated, and target-based land use planning suggestions should be given on this basis. This study uses remote sensing and GIS technology to analyze the temporal and spatial changes of land use in Hokkaido during the past two decades. The types of land use include cultivated land, forest, waterbody, construction, grassland, and others, by using the satellite images of the Landsat images in 2000, 2010, and 2019 to achieve this goal to make classification. In addition, this study used the coupled Markov-FLUS model to simulate and analyze the land use changes in three different scenarios in Hokkaido in the next 20 years. Scenario-based situational analysis shows that the cultivated land in Hokkaido will drop by about 25% in 2040 under the natural development scenario (ND), while the cultivated land area in Hokkaido will remain basically unchanged in cultivated land protection scenario (CP). In forest protection scenario (FP), the area of forest in Hokkaido will increase by 1580.8 km². It is believed that the findings reveal that the forest land in Hokkaido has been well protected in the past and will be protected well in the next 20 years. However, in land use planning for future, Hokkaido government and enterprises should pay more attention to the protection of cultivated land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observations for Sustainable Development Goals)

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16 pages, 16210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Point to Region: Accurate and Efficient Hierarchical Small Object Detection in Low-Resolution Remote Sensing Images

by Jingqian Wu and Shibiao Xu

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2620; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132620 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3299

Abstract

Accurate object detection is important in computer vision. However, detecting small objects in low-resolution images remains a challenging and elusive problem, primarily because these objects are constructed of less visual information and cannot be easily distinguished from similar background regions. To resolve this [...] Read more.

Accurate object detection is important in computer vision. However, detecting small objects in low-resolution images remains a challenging and elusive problem, primarily because these objects are constructed of less visual information and cannot be easily distinguished from similar background regions. To resolve this problem, we propose a Hierarchical Small Object Detection Network in low-resolution remote sensing images, named HSOD-Net. We develop a point-to-region detection paradigm by first performing a key-point prediction to obtain position hypotheses, then only later super-resolving the image and detecting the objects around those candidate positions. By postponing the object prediction to after increasing its resolution, the obtained key-points are more stable than their traditional counterparts based on early object detection with less visual information. This hierarchical approach, HSOD-Net, saves significant run-time, which makes it more suitable for practical applications such as search and rescue, and drone navigation. In comparison with the state-of-art models, HSOD-Net achieves remarkable precision in detecting small objects in low-resolution remote sensing images. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Photogrammetry into Engineering Practice: Advances and Experience)

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12 pages, 11577 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Identification of Construction Areas from VHR-Satellite Images for Macroeconomic Forecasts

by Carsten Juergens and M. Fabian Meyer-Heß

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2618; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132618 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3016

Abstract

This contribution focuses on the utilization of very-high-resolution (VHR) images to identify construction areas and their temporal changes aiming to estimate the investment in construction as a basis for economic forecasts. Triggered by the need to improve macroeconomic forecasts and reduce their time [...] Read more.

This contribution focuses on the utilization of very-high-resolution (VHR) images to identify construction areas and their temporal changes aiming to estimate the investment in construction as a basis for economic forecasts. Triggered by the need to improve macroeconomic forecasts and reduce their time intervals, the idea arose to use frequently available information derived from satellite imagery. For the improvement of macroeconomic forecasts, the period to detect changes between two points in time needs to be rather short because early identification of such investments is beneficial. Therefore, in this study, it is of interest to identify and quantify new construction areas, which will turn into build-up areas later. A multiresolution segmentation followed by a kNN classification is applied to WorldView images from an area around the southern part of Berlin, Germany. Specific material compositions of construction areas result in typical classification patterns different from other land cover classes. A GIS-based analysis follows to extract specific temporal “patterns of life” in construction areas. With the early identification of such patterns of life, it is possible to predict construction areas that will turn into real estate later. This information serves as an input for macroeconomic forecasts to support quicker forecasts in future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue European Remote Sensing-New Solutions for Science and Practice)

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19 pages, 5533 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Global Sensitivity Analysis for Canopy Reflectance and Vegetation Indices of Mangroves

by Chunyue Niu, Stuart Phinn and Chris Roelfsema

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2617; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132617 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2452

Abstract

Remote sensing has been applied to map the extent and biophysical properties of mangroves. However, the impact of several critical factors, such as the fractional cover and leaf-to-total area ratio of mangroves, on their canopy reflectance have rarely been reported. In this study, [...] Read more.

Remote sensing has been applied to map the extent and biophysical properties of mangroves. However, the impact of several critical factors, such as the fractional cover and leaf-to-total area ratio of mangroves, on their canopy reflectance have rarely been reported. In this study, a systematic global sensitivity analysis was performed for mangroves based on a one-dimensional canopy reflectance model. Different scenarios such as sparse or dense canopies were set up to evaluate the impact of various biophysical and environmental factors, together with their ranges and probability distributions, on simulated canopy reflectance spectra and selected Sentinel-2A vegetation indices of mangroves. A variance-based method and a density-based method were adopted to compare the computed sensitivity indices. Our results showed that the fractional cover and leaf-to-total area ratio of mangrove crowns were among the most influential factors for all examined scenarios. As for other factors, plant area index and water depth were influential for sparse canopies while leaf biochemical properties and inclination angles were more influential for dense canopies. Therefore, these influential factors may need attention when mapping the biophysical properties of mangroves such as leaf area index. Moreover, a tailored sensitivity analysis is recommended for a specific mapping application as the computed sensitivity indices may be different if a specific input configuration and sensitivity analysis method are adopted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

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19 pages, 4424 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Floodplain Vegetative Roughness Using Drone-Based Laser Scanning and Structure from Motion Photogrammetry

by Elizabeth M. Prior, Charles A. Aquilina, Jonathan A. Czuba, Thomas J. Pingel and W. Cully Hession

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2616; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132616 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3453

Abstract

Vegetation heights derived from drone laser scanning (DLS), and structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry at the Virginia Tech StREAM Lab were utilized to determine hydraulic roughness (Manning’s roughness coefficients). We determined hydraulic roughness at three spatial scales: reach, patch, and pixel. For the [...] Read more.

Vegetation heights derived from drone laser scanning (DLS), and structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry at the Virginia Tech StREAM Lab were utilized to determine hydraulic roughness (Manning’s roughness coefficients). We determined hydraulic roughness at three spatial scales: reach, patch, and pixel. For the reach scale, one roughness value was set for the channel, and one value for the entire floodplain. For the patch scale, vegetation heights were used to classify the floodplain into grass, scrub, and small and large trees, with a single roughness value for each. The roughness values for the reach and patch methods were calibrated using a two-dimensional (2D) hydrodynamic model (HEC-RAS) and data from in situ velocity sensors. For the pixel method, we applied empirical equations that directly estimated roughness from vegetation height for each pixel of the raster (no calibration necessary). Model simulations incorporating these roughness datasets in 2D HEC-RAS were validated against water surface elevations (WSE) from seventeen groundwater wells for seven high-flow events during the Fall of 2018 and 2019, and compared to marked flood extents. The reach method tended to overestimate while the pixel method tended to underestimate the flood extent. There were no visual differences between DLS and SfM within the pixel and patch methods when comparing flood extents. All model simulations were not significantly different with respect to the well WSEs (p > 0.05). The pixel methods had the lowest WSE RMSEs (SfM: 0.136 m, DLS: 0.124 m). The other methods had RMSE values 0.01–0.02 m larger than the DLS pixel method. Models with DLS data also had lower WSE RMSEs by 0.01 m when compared to models utilizing SfM. This difference might not justify the increased cost of a DLS setup over SfM (~150,000 vs. ~2000 USD for this study), though our use of the DLS DEM to determine SfM vegetation heights might explain this minimal difference. We expect a poorer performance of the SfM-derived vegetation heights/roughness values if we were using a SfM DEM, although further work is needed. These results will help improve hydrodynamic modeling efforts, which are becoming increasingly important for management and planning in response to climate change, specifically in regions were high flow events are increasing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D Remote Sensing and Image Analysis from Unmanned Aerial Systems)

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26 pages, 29921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IGS-CMAES: A Two-Stage Optimization for Ground Deformation and DEM Error Estimation in Time Series InSAR Data

by Xinyao Sun, Aaron Zimmer, Subhayan Mukherjee, Parwant Ghuman and Irene Cheng

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2615; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132615 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2604

Abstract

Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) has become an increasingly recognized remote sensing technology for earth surface monitoring. Slow and subtle terrain displacements can be estimated using time-series InSAR (TSInSAR) data. However, a substantial increase in the availability of exclusive time series data necessitates [...] Read more.

Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) has become an increasingly recognized remote sensing technology for earth surface monitoring. Slow and subtle terrain displacements can be estimated using time-series InSAR (TSInSAR) data. However, a substantial increase in the availability of exclusive time series data necessitates the development of more efficient and effective algorithms. Research in these areas is usually carried out by solving complicated optimization problems, which is very computationally expensive and time-consuming. This work proposes a two-stage black-box optimization framework to jointly estimate the average ground deformation rate and terrain digital elevation model (DEM) error. The method performs an iterative grid search (IGS) to acquire coarse candidate solutions, and then a covariance matrix adaptive evolution strategy (CMAES) is adopted to obtain the final local results. The performance of our method is evaluated using both simulated and real datasets. Both quantitative and qualitative comparisons using different optimizers support the reliability and effectiveness of our work. The proposed IGS-CMAES achieves higher accuracy with a significantly fewer number of objective function evaluations than other established algorithms. It offers the possibility for wide-area monitoring, where high precision and real-time processing is essential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Environment Monitoring with Advanced Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar: New Architectures, Operational Modes, and Processing Techniques)

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Remote Sens., Volume 13, Issue 13 (July-1 2021) – 218 articles

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