Nuclear Medicine in Times of COVID-19: How Radiopharmaceuticals Could Help to Fight the Current and Future Pandemics
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. SARS-CoV-2 Structure, Infection, Replication and Treatment
2.1. Virion Structure
2.2. Cell Entry and Tissue Tropism
2.3. Replication in Infected Cells
2.4. Experimental Drugs Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry
2.5. Experimental Drugs Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Replication
3. Application of Nuclear Imaging in the Context of SARS-CoV-2
3.1. Imaging of Host Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Infection
3.2. Imaging of Host Molecules Involved in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
3.3. PET- or SPECT-Based Antiviral Drug Development
3.4. SARS-CoV-2-Specific Nuclear Imaging
4. Use of Radiopharmaceuticals for the Treatment of COVID-19
4.1. Radionuclide Therapy Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Virions
4.2. Radionuclide Therapy Targeting SARS-CoV-2-Infected Cells
5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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Inhibitor | IC50 [µM] | CC50 [µM] | Class | Target | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
311mab-31B5 | 0.0338 | NA | nAB | S protein (RBD) | [27] |
311mab-32D4 | 0.0698 | NA | nAB | S protein (RBD) | [27] |
47D11 | 0.57 | NA | nAB | S protein (RBD) | [28] |
COVA1-18 | NA | NA | nAB | S protein (RBD) | [29] |
COVA2-15 | NA | NA | nAB | S protein (RBD) | [29] |
CR3022 | - | NA | nnAB | S protein (RBD) | [37,38] |
Arbidol | 4.11 µM | 31.79 µM | SM | S protein (S2) | [30] |
Inhibitor | IC50 [µM] | EC50 [µM] | CC50 [µM] | Class | MOA | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GC-376 | 0.03 | 3.14–3.37 | >100 | PA1 | C | [43] |
Inhibitor 11b | 0.04 | 0.72 | NA | PA | C | [22] |
Inhibitor 11a | 0.05 | 0.53 | NA | PA | C | [22] |
alpha-ketoamide 11r | 0.18 | NA | NA | PAK | C | [44] |
Calpain inhibitor XII | 0.45 | 0.49–0.78 | >50 | PAK | C | [43] |
Ebselen | 0.67 | 4.67 | NA | SM | C | [23] |
alpha-ketoamide 13b | 0.67 | 4–5 | NA | PAK | C | [44] |
Baicalein | 0.94 | 2.94 | >200 | SM | NC | [49] |
Calpain inhibitor II (ALLM) | 0.97 | 2.07–3.70 | >100 | PA | C | [43] |
Tideglusib | 1.55 | NA | NA | SM | C | [23] |
Carmofur | 1.82 | 24.30 | NA | SM | C | [23,46] |
alpha-ketoamide 13a | 2.39 | NA | NA | PAK | C | [44] |
MG-115 (Proteasome inhibitor) | 3.14 | NA | NA | PA | C | [43] |
MG-132 (Proteasome inhibitor) | 3.90 | NA | <1 | PA | C | [43] |
Boceprevir | 4.13 | 1.31–1.95 | >100 | PAK | C | [43] |
Narlaprevir | 4.73 | NA | NA | PAK | C | [43] |
Baicalin | 6.41 | 27.87 | >200 | SM | NC | [49] |
Calpain inhibitor I (ALLN/MG-101) | 8.60 | NA | NA | PA | C | [43] |
Disulfiram | 9.35 | NA | NA | SM | C | [23] |
Proteasome inhibitor I (PSI) | 10.38 | NA | NA | PA | C | [43] |
Calpeptin | 10.69 | NA | NA | PA | C | [43] |
Simeprevir | 13.75 | NA | NA | PMC | C | [43] |
Shikonin | 15.75 | NA | NA | SM | NC | [23] |
PX-12 | 21.39 | NA | NA | SM | C | [23] |
N3 | NA | 16.77 | >100 | PAE | C | [23,45] |
Inhibitor | IC50 [µM] | EC50 [µM] | CC50 [µM] | Class | MOA | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ebselen | 2.0–2.4 | 4.67 | NA | SM | C+ZE | [23,47,48] |
GRL-0617 | 2.4 | 27.6 | NA | SM | NC | [24,52] |
Compound 6 | 5.0 | 21.0 | NA | SM | NC | [52] |
Disulfiram | 7.5 | NA | NA | SM | C+ZE | [48] |
7724772 | 23.5 | NA | NA | SM | NC | [52] |
6577871 | 100.7 | NA | NA | SM | NC | [52] |
9247873 | >200 | NA | NA | SM | NC | [52] |
VIR251 | NA | NA | NA | PVME | C | [53] |
VIR250 | NA | NA | NA | PVME | C | [53] |
Radionuclide | Half-Life | Daughters | Decay Type (Probability) | Use |
---|---|---|---|---|
15O | 2 min | 15N (stable) | β+ (99.9%), EC (0.1%) | PET |
13N | 10 min | 13C (stable) | β+ (99.8%), EC (0.2%) | PET |
11C | 20 min | 11B (stable) | β+ (99.7%), EC (0.3%) | PET |
68Ga | 67 min | 68Zn (stable) | β+ (88.9%), EC (11.1%) | PET |
18F | 110 min | 18O (stable) | β+ (97.0%), EC (3.0%) | PET |
64Cu | 12.7 h | 64Ni/64Zn (stable) | β+ (17.9%), EC (43.1%), β- (39.0%) | PET |
99mTc | 6 h | 99Tc a | [γ-Ray (88%), IC (12%)] | SPECT |
123I | 13.2 h | 123Te b | EC (100%) [γ-Ray (84%), IC (16%)] | SPECT |
111In | 67 h | 111Cd (stable) | EC (100%) [γ-Ray (100%)] | SPECT |
α -Particle Emission | β -Particle Emission | Auger Emission | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Radio- | Pa | Emax | Range | Pa | Emax | Range | Pa | Emax | Range | ||
Nuclide | Daughters | Half-Life | [%] | [MeV] | [µm] | [%] | [MeV] | [mm] | [%] | [keV] | [µm] |
213Bi | 46 min | 2.2 | 5.9 | 50 | 97.8 | 0.5 | 1.7 | - | - | - | |
213 Po→209Pb | 4.2 µs | 100 | 8.4 | 90 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
209 TI→209Pb | 2.2 min | - | - | - | 100 | 0.6 | 2.3 | - | - | - | |
209 Pb→209Bi (stable) | 3.3 h | - | - | - | 100 | 0.2 | 0.5 | - | - | - | |
212Bi | 1 h | 35.9 | 6.1 | 50 | 64.1 | 0.8 | 3.3 | - | - | - | |
212 Po→208Pb (stable) | 299 ns | 100 | 8.8 | 100 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
208 TI→208Pb (stable) | 3.1 min | - | 100 | 0.3–0.6 | 0.9–2.3 | - | - | - | |||
211At | 7.2 h | 41.8 | 5.9 | 50 | - | - | - | 58.2 | 93 | <0.5 | |
211 Po→207Pb (stable) | 516 ms | 100 | 7.4 | 70 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
207 Bi→207Pb (stable) | 33 yrsb | - | - | - | - | - | - | 100 | 88 | <0.5 | |
188Re | 188Os (stable) | 17.0 h | - | - | - | 100 | 2.0 | 10 | - | - | - |
166Ho | 166Er (stable) | 28.8 h | - | - | - | 100 | 1.8 | 9 | - | - | - |
103mRh | 103Rh (stable) | 56 min | - | - | - | - | - | - | 100 | 39.7 | <0.5 |
161Ho | 161Dy (stable) | 2.48 h | - | - | - | - | - | - | 100 | NA | <0.5 |
123I | 123Te (stable) | 13.2 h | - | - | - | - | - | - | 100 | 32 | <0.5 |
111In | 111Cd (stable) | 67 h | - | - | - | - | - | - | 100 | 26 | <0.5 |
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Neumaier, F.; Zlatopolskiy, B.D.; Neumaier, B. Nuclear Medicine in Times of COVID-19: How Radiopharmaceuticals Could Help to Fight the Current and Future Pandemics. Pharmaceutics 2020, 12, 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics12121247
Neumaier F, Zlatopolskiy BD, Neumaier B. Nuclear Medicine in Times of COVID-19: How Radiopharmaceuticals Could Help to Fight the Current and Future Pandemics. Pharmaceutics. 2020; 12(12):1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics12121247
Chicago/Turabian StyleNeumaier, Felix, Boris D. Zlatopolskiy, and Bernd Neumaier. 2020. "Nuclear Medicine in Times of COVID-19: How Radiopharmaceuticals Could Help to Fight the Current and Future Pandemics" Pharmaceutics 12, no. 12: 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics12121247