Viruses

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Open AccessReview

The “Connection” Between HIV Drug Resistance and RNase H

by Krista A. Delviks-Frankenberry, Galina N. Nikolenko and Vinay K. Pathak

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1476-1503; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071476 - 21 Jul 2010

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 13167

Currently, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are two classes of antiretroviral agents that are approved for treatment of HIV-1 infection. Since both NRTIs and NNRTIs target the polymerase (pol) domain of reverse transcriptase (RT), most genotypic analysis [...] Read more.

Currently, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are two classes of antiretroviral agents that are approved for treatment of HIV-1 infection. Since both NRTIs and NNRTIs target the polymerase (pol) domain of reverse transcriptase (RT), most genotypic analysis for drug resistance is limited to the first ~300 amino acids of RT. However, recent studies have demonstrated that mutations in the C-terminal domain of RT, specifically the connection subdomain and RNase H domain, can also increase resistance to both NRTIs and NNRTIs. In this review we will present the potential mechanisms by which mutations in the C-terminal domain of RT influence NRTI and NNRTI susceptibility, summarize the prevalence of the mutations in these regions of RT identified to date, and discuss their importance to clinical drug resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV Drug Resistance 2010)

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Open AccessArticle

The Genomic Diversity and Phylogenetic Relationship in the Family Iridoviridae

by Heather E. Eaton, Brooke A. Ring and Craig R. Brunetti

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1458-1475; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071458 - 15 Jul 2010

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 11636

Abstract

The Iridoviridae family are large viruses (~120-200 nm) that contain a linear double-stranded DNA genome. The genomic size of Iridoviridae family members range from 105,903 bases encoding 97 open reading frames (ORFs) for frog virus 3 to 212,482 bases encoding 211 ORFs for [...] Read more.

The Iridoviridae family are large viruses (~120-200 nm) that contain a linear double-stranded DNA genome. The genomic size of Iridoviridae family members range from 105,903 bases encoding 97 open reading frames (ORFs) for frog virus 3 to 212,482 bases encoding 211 ORFs for Chilo iridescent virus. The family Iridoviridae is currently subdivided into five genera: Chloriridovirus, Iridovirus, Lymphocystivirus, Megalocytivirus, and Ranavirus. Iridoviruses have been found to infect invertebrates and poikilothermic vertebrates, including amphibians, reptiles, and fish. With such a diverse array of hosts, there is great diversity in gene content between different genera. To understand the origin of iridoviruses, we explored the phylogenetic relationship between individual iridoviruses and defined the core-set of genes shared by all members of the family. In order to further explore the evolutionary relationship between the Iridoviridae family repetitive sequences were identified and compared. Each genome was found to contain a set of unique repetitive sequences that could be used in future virus identification. Repeats common to more than one virus were also identified and changes in copy number between these repeats may provide a simple method to differentiate between very closely related virus strains. The results of this paper will be useful in identifying new iridoviruses and determining their relationship to other members of the family. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Genomics and Bioinformatics)

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Open AccessReview

siRNA for Influenza Therapy

by Sailen Barik

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1448-1457; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071448 - 09 Jul 2010

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 11491

Abstract

Influenza virus is one of the most prevalent and ancient infections in humans. About a fifth of world's population is infected by influenza virus annually, leading to high morbidity and mortality, particularly in infants, the elderly and the immunocompromised. In the US alone, [...] Read more.

Influenza virus is one of the most prevalent and ancient infections in humans. About a fifth of world's population is infected by influenza virus annually, leading to high morbidity and mortality, particularly in infants, the elderly and the immunocompromised. In the US alone, influenza outbreaks lead to roughly 30,000 deaths each year. Current vaccines and anti-influenza drugs are of limited use due to high mutation rate of the virus and side effects. In recent years, RNA interference, triggered by synthetic short interfering RNA (siRNA), has rapidly evolved as a potent antiviral regimen. Properly designed siRNAs have been shown to function as potent inhibitors of influenza virus replication. The siRNAs outperform traditional small molecule antivirals in a number of areas, such as ease of design, modest cost, and fast turnaround. Although specificity and tissue delivery remain major bottlenecks in the clinical applications of RNAi in general, intranasal application of siRNA against respiratory viruses including, but not limited to influenza virus, has experienced significant success and optimism, which is reviewed here. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antivirals Against Influenza)

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The HTLV-1 Virological Synapse

by Mohamed Nejmeddine and Charles R.M. Bangham

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1427-1447; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071427 - 07 Jul 2010

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 13408

Abstract

Human T-lymphotropic virus-1 (HTLV-1) spreads efficiently between T-cells via a tight and highly organized cell-cell contact known as the virological synapse. It is now thought that many retroviruses and other viruses spread via a virological synapse, which may be defined as a virus-induced, [...] Read more.

Human T-lymphotropic virus-1 (HTLV-1) spreads efficiently between T-cells via a tight and highly organized cell-cell contact known as the virological synapse. It is now thought that many retroviruses and other viruses spread via a virological synapse, which may be defined as a virus-induced, specialized area of cell-to-cell contact that promotes the directed transmission of the virus between cells. We summarize here the mechanisms leading to the formation of the HTLV-1 virological synapse and the role played by HTLV-1 Tax protein. We propose a model of HTLV-1 transmission between T-cells based on the three-dimensional ultrastructure of the virological synapse. Finally, in the light of recent advances, we discuss the possible routes of HTLV-1 spread across the virological synapse. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transmission of Retroviruses across Virological Synapses)

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Open AccessReview

Role of Gag in HIV Resistance to Protease Inhibitors

by François Clavel and Fabrizio Mammano

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1411-1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071411 - 05 Jul 2010

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 11074

Abstract

Cleavage of Gag and Gag-Pol precursors by the viral protease is an essential step in the replication cycle of HIV. Protease inhibitors, which compete with natural cleavage sites, strongly impair viral infectivity and have proven to be highly valuable in the treatment of [...] Read more.

Cleavage of Gag and Gag-Pol precursors by the viral protease is an essential step in the replication cycle of HIV. Protease inhibitors, which compete with natural cleavage sites, strongly impair viral infectivity and have proven to be highly valuable in the treatment of HIV-infected subjects. However, as with all other antiretroviral drugs, the clinical benefit of protease inhibitors can be compromised by resistance. One key feature of HIV resistance to protease inhibitors is that the mutations that promote resistance are not only located in the protease itself, but also in some of its natural substrates. The best documented resistance-associated substrate mutations are located in, or near, the cleavage sites in the NC/SP2/p6 region of Gag. These mutations improve interactions between the substrate and the mutated enzyme and correspondingly increase cleavage. Initially described as compensatory mutations able to partially correct the loss of viral fitness that results from protease mutations, changes in Gag are now recognized as being directly involved in resistance. Besides NC/SP2/p6 mutations, polymorphisms in other regions of Gag have been found to exert various effects on viral fitness and or resistance, but their importance deserves further evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV Drug Resistance 2010)

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Open AccessReview

Innate Antiviral Immune Responses to Hepatitis B Virus

by Malika Ait-goughoulte, Julie Lucifora, Fabien Zoulim and David Durantel

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1394-1410; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071394 - 05 Jul 2010

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 19388

Abstract

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major cause of acute and chronic hepatitis in humans. As HBV itself is currently viewed as a non-cytopathic virus, the liver pathology associated with hepatitis B is mainly thought to be due to immune responses directed against [...] Read more.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major cause of acute and chronic hepatitis in humans. As HBV itself is currently viewed as a non-cytopathic virus, the liver pathology associated with hepatitis B is mainly thought to be due to immune responses directed against HBV antigens. The outcome of HBV infection is the result of complex interactions between replicating HBV and the immune system. While the role of the adaptive immune response in the resolution of HBV infection is well understood, the contribution of innate immune mechanisms remains to be clearly defined. The innate immune system represents the first line of defense against viral infection, but its role has been difficult to analyze in humans due to late diagnosis of HBV infection. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the field of innate immunity to HBV infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis Viruses)

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Open AccessReview

Targeting microRNA-122 to Treat Hepatitis C Virus Infection

by Catherine L. Jopling

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1382-1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071382 - 05 Jul 2010

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 11767

Abstract

An important host factor for hepatitis C virus (HCV) is microRNA-122 (miR-122). miR-122 is a liver-specific member of a family of small, non-coding RNA molecules known as microRNAs that play major roles in the regulation of gene expression by direct interaction with RNA [...] Read more.

An important host factor for hepatitis C virus (HCV) is microRNA-122 (miR-122). miR-122 is a liver-specific member of a family of small, non-coding RNA molecules known as microRNAs that play major roles in the regulation of gene expression by direct interaction with RNA targets. miR-122 binds directly to two sites in the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of HCV RNA and positively regulates the viral life cycle. The mechanism by which this regulation occurs is still not fully understood. There has been a great deal of interest in potential therapeutics based on small RNAs, and targeting miR-122 to combat HCV is one of the furthest advanced. Chemical inhibitors of miR-122 can be introduced into mammals intravenously and result in potent and specific knockdown of the microRNA, with no detectable adverse effects on liver physiology. This strategy was recently applied to chimpanzees chronically infected with HCV and resulted in a sustained reduction in viral load in the animals. Inhibition of miR-122 therefore presents a very attractive novel approach to treating HCV, a virus for which improved therapeutics are urgently needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antivirals Against Hepatitis C Virus)

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Open AccessReview

The Revolution in Viral Genomics as Exemplified by the Bioinformatic Analysis of Human Adenoviruses

by Sarah Torres, James Chodosh, Donald Seto and Morris S. Jones

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1367-1381; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071367 - 28 Jun 2010

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 11009

Abstract

Over the past 30 years, genomic and bioinformatic analysis of human adenoviruses has been achieved using a variety of DNA sequencing methods; initially with the use of restriction enzymes and more currently with the use of the GS FLX pyrosequencing technology. Following the [...] Read more.

Over the past 30 years, genomic and bioinformatic analysis of human adenoviruses has been achieved using a variety of DNA sequencing methods; initially with the use of restriction enzymes and more currently with the use of the GS FLX pyrosequencing technology. Following the conception of DNA sequencing in the 1970s, analysis of adenoviruses has evolved from 100 base pair mRNA fragments to entire genomes. Comparative genomics of adenoviruses made its debut in 1984 when nucleotides and amino acids of coding sequences within the hexon genes of two human adenoviruses (HAdV), HAdV–C2 and HAdV–C5, were compared and analyzed. It was determined that there were three different zones (1-393, 394-1410, 1411-2910) within the hexon gene, of which HAdV–C2 and HAdV–C5 shared zones 1 and 3 with 95% and 89.5% nucleotide identity, respectively. In 1992, HAdV-C5 became the first adenovirus genome to be fully sequenced using the Sanger method. Over the next seven years, whole genome analysis and characterization was completed using bioinformatic tools such as blastn, tblastx, ClustalV and FASTA, in order to determine key proteins in species HAdV-A through HAdV-F. The bioinformatic revolution was initiated with the introduction of a novel species, HAdV-G, that was typed and named by the use of whole genome sequencing and phylogenetics as opposed to traditional serology. HAdV bioinformatics will continue to advance as the latest sequencing technology enables scientists to add to and expand the resource databases. As a result of these advancements, how novel HAdVs are typed has changed. Bioinformatic analysis has become the revolutionary tool that has significantly accelerated the in-depth study of HAdV microevolution through comparative genomics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Genomics and Bioinformatics)

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Open AccessReview

Resistance to Integrase Inhibitors

by Mathieu Métifiot, Christophe Marchand, Kasthuraiah Maddali and Yves Pommier

Viruses 2010, 2(7), 1347-1366; https://doi.org/10.3390/v2071347 - 25 Jun 2010

Cited by 86 | Viewed by 13023

Abstract

Integrase (IN) is a clinically validated target for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infections and raltegravir exhibits remarkable clinical activity. The next most advanced IN inhibitor is elvitegravir. However, mutant viruses lead to treatment failure and mutations within the IN coding sequence [...] Read more.

Integrase (IN) is a clinically validated target for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infections and raltegravir exhibits remarkable clinical activity. The next most advanced IN inhibitor is elvitegravir. However, mutant viruses lead to treatment failure and mutations within the IN coding sequence appear to confer cross-resistance. The characterization of those mutations is critical for the development of second generation IN inhibitors to overcome resistance. This review focuses on IN resistance based on structural and biochemical data, and on the role of the IN flexible loop i.e., between residues G140-G149 in drug action and resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV Drug Resistance 2010)

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Viruses, Volume 2, Issue 7 (July 2010) – 9 articles , Pages 1347-1503

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