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Forests
Volume 11
Issue 3
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Forests, Volume 11, Issue 3 (March 2020) – 112 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Forest resources in Georgia, USA, have a high economic impact, and their sustainability depends on accurate resource assessments. Forest disturbances, such as harvests and calamities, have the most significant impacts on the inventories and their fluctuations; they directly affect the standing volumes and the ages of the regenerated stands. The two primary objectives of this research were to develop and test a reliable methodology for statewide tracking of forest disturbances in Georgia; and to consider and discuss the utility and implications of the information derived from the forest disturbance map. Two primary disturbance detection methods, a threshold algorithm, and a statistical boundary method were combined to develop a robust estimation of recent forest disturbance history for the years 1987–2016, based on analysis of all available Landsat TM/ETM+ data, producing dependable results. View this [...] Read more.
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18 pages, 2153 KiB  
Article
Characterizing over Four Decades of Forest Disturbance in Minnesota, USA
by Jody C. Vogeler, Robert A. Slesak, Patrick A. Fekety and Michael J. Falkowski
Forests 2020, 11(3), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030362 - 24 Mar 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4624
Abstract
Spatial information about disturbance driven patterns of forest structure and ages across landscapes provide a valuable resource for all land management efforts including cross-ownership collaborative forest treatments and restoration. While disturbance events in general are known to impact stand characteristics, the agent of [...] Read more.
Spatial information about disturbance driven patterns of forest structure and ages across landscapes provide a valuable resource for all land management efforts including cross-ownership collaborative forest treatments and restoration. While disturbance events in general are known to impact stand characteristics, the agent of change may also influence recovery and the supply of ecosystem services. Our study utilizes the full extent of the Landsat archive to identify the timing, extent, magnitude, and agent, of the most recent fast disturbance event for all forested lands within Minnesota, USA. To account for the differences in the Landsat sensors through time, specifically the coarser spatial, spectral, and radiometric resolutions of the early MSS sensors, we employed a two-step approach, first harmonizing spectral indices across the Landsat sensors, then applying a segmentation algorithm to fit temporal trends to the time series to identify abrupt forest disturbance events. We further incorporated spectral, topographic, and land protection information in our classification of the agent of change for all disturbance patches. After allowing two years for the time series to stabilize, we were able to identify the most recent fast disturbance events across Minnesota from 1974–2018 with a change versus no-change validation accuracy of 97.2% ± 1.9%, and higher omission (14.9% ± 9.3%) than commission errors (1.6% ± 1.9%) for the identification of change patches. Our classification of the agent of change exhibited an overall accuracy of 96.5% ± 1.9% with classes including non-disturbed forest, land conversion, fire, flooding, harvest, wind/weather, and other rare natural events. Individual class errors varied, but all class user and producer accuracies were above 78%. The unmatched nature of the Landsat archive for providing comparable forest attribute and change information across more than four decades highlights the value of the totality of the Landsat program to the larger geospatial, ecological research, and forest management communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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17 pages, 3165 KiB  
Article
Increased Drought Sensitivity Results in a Declining Tree Growth of Pinus latteri in Northeastern Thailand
by Sakkarin Rakthai, Pei-Li Fu, Ze-Xin Fan, Narayan Prasad Gaire, Nathsuda Pumijumnong, Wichan Eiadthong and Suwan Tangmitcharoen
Forests 2020, 11(3), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030361 - 24 Mar 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4941
Abstract
Climate change may lead to alterations in tree growth and carbon cycling. Interpreting the response of forest growth to climate change requires an understanding of the temporal and spatial patterns of seasonal climatic influences on the growth of tree species. However, the effects [...] Read more.
Climate change may lead to alterations in tree growth and carbon cycling. Interpreting the response of forest growth to climate change requires an understanding of the temporal and spatial patterns of seasonal climatic influences on the growth of tree species. However, the effects of climate change on pine forest dynamics in tropical region of Thailand remain poorly understood. This study develops three new tree ring-width chronologies of Pinus latteri (Tenasserim pine) in northern and northeastern Thailand and analyzes their climate-growth relationships and temporal stability. Ring-width chronologies of P. latteri at three sites showed significantly positive correlations with precipitation, relative humidity and self-calibrated Palmer Drought Severity Index (scPDSI) during the dry season (previous November to current April) and early rainy season (May–June). Conversely, significantly negative correlations were found between ring-width site chronologies and air temperatures (mean, maximum and minimum) from April to August. Therefore, our results revealed that radial growth of Tenasserim pines from northern and northeastern Thailand was mainly limited by moisture availability during the dry-to-wet transition season from April to June. Moving correlations revealed that Tenasserim pines in the lowland area of northeastern Thailand became more sensitive to moisture availability in recent 30 years (1985–2017) as compared with early period (1951–1984). Accompanying the shifted growth sensitivity to climate change, growth synchrony among trees was increasing and tree growth rates of Tenasserim pines have been declining during recent decades at two more moisture-limited sites in northeastern Thailand. Recent rapid warming and increasing drought during the transition season (April–June) together intensify climatic constrains on tree growth of Tenasserim pines in the lowland area of northeastern Thailand. Considering continued regional climate change, pine forests in tropical lowland areas may encounter intensified drought stresses, and thus, become more vulnerable to future climate change. Our results serve as an early indicator of potential effects of climate change on tropical pine species and raise concerns about sustainable managements of pine forests under a changing climate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanisms of Adaptation of Trees and Shrubs to Dry and Hot Environments)
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31 pages, 9987 KiB  
Article
Penetration Resistance of Laacher See-tephra Andosols—Evaluating Rooting Conditions of Undisturbed and Excavated Forest Soils in SW-Germany
by Julian J. Zemke, Ulli Bange, John Dellen, Ines Groh, Roxane C. A. Henn, Joshua Pöhler and Stephan Stegmann
Forests 2020, 11(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030360 - 23 Mar 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2789
Abstract
This study discusses penetration resistance (PR) of forested Pumice-Andosol sites. PR, a key soil property influencing root growth and elongation, exerts a substantial influence on ecological site quality and tree growth. Andosols were expected to show low PR because of their unique characteristics [...] Read more.
This study discusses penetration resistance (PR) of forested Pumice-Andosol sites. PR, a key soil property influencing root growth and elongation, exerts a substantial influence on ecological site quality and tree growth. Andosols were expected to show low PR because of their unique characteristics (low bulk density, loose soil matrix). Five sites, two undisturbed and three backfilled, were sampled. The latter result from pumice excavation and were examined to quantify potential PR alterations in the aftermath of backfilling and pumice removal. Penetrologger sampling on undisturbed sites showed mean PR not exceeding 3 MPa, a literature-based, critical threshold restricting root growth, in the upper 0.80 m, indicating conditions fostering tree rooting. Backfilled sites mostly exhibited increased (> 3 MPa) PR, leading to rooting restrictions even beginning at −0.21 m. Deviations from undisturbed soils range from −15.6 to +109.3% depending on depth and age of the backfilled site. Furthermore, GIS-based data interpolation helped to identify spatial PR patterns and allowed a direct comparison before/after backfilling at one site. Statistical analysis revealed significantly altered PR after backfilling, while a concluding ANOVA provided at least significant governing factors (depth, area, clay + silt content, soil organic matter), albeit with only small effect sizes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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14 pages, 1879 KiB  
Article
Responses of Parameters for Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy and Pressure–Volume Curves to Drought Stress in Pinus bungeana Seedlings
by Ai-Fang Wang, Bao Di, Tapani Repo, Marja Roitto and Gang Zhang
Forests 2020, 11(3), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030359 - 23 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2435
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Drought occurs more frequently in Northern China with the advent of climate change, which might increase the mortality of tree seedlings after afforestation due to hydraulic failure. Therefore, investigating water relations helps us understand the drought tolerance of tree seedlings. [...] Read more.
Background and Objectives: Drought occurs more frequently in Northern China with the advent of climate change, which might increase the mortality of tree seedlings after afforestation due to hydraulic failure. Therefore, investigating water relations helps us understand the drought tolerance of tree seedlings. Electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is widely used to assess the responses of plant tissues to stress factors and may potentially reveal the water relations of cells. The aim of this study is to reveal the relationships between EIS and water related parameters, produced by pressure–volume (PV) curves in lacebark pine (Pinus bungeana Zucc.) seedlings reacting to drought stress. Materials and Methods: Four-year-old pot seedlings were divided into three parts (0, 5, and 10 days of drought) before planting, the treated seedlings were then replanted, and finally exposed to post-planting drought treatments with the following soil relative water contents: (i) adequate irrigation (75%–80%), (ii) light drought (55%–60%), (iii) moderate drought (35%–40%), and (iv), severe drought (15%–20%). During the post-planting growth phase, the EIS parameters of needles and shoots, and the parameters of PV curves, were measured coincidently; thus, the correlations between them could be obtained. Results: The extracellular resistance (re) of needles and shoots were substantially reduced after four weeks of severe post-planting drought stress. Meanwhile, the osmotic potential at the turgor-loss point (ψtlp) and the saturation water osmotic potential (ψsat) of shoots decreased after drought stress, indicating an osmotic adjustment in acclimating to drought. The highest correlations were found between the intracellular resistance (ri) of the shoots and ψtlp and ψsat. Conclusions: EIS parameters can be used as a measure of drought tolerance. The change in intracellular resistance is related to the osmotic potential of the cell and cell wall elasticity. Extracellular resistance is a parameter that shows cell membrane damage in response to drought stress in lacebark pine seedlings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tree Responses to Drought)
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16 pages, 2202 KiB  
Article
Short Legacy Effects of Growing Season Nitrogen Addition and Reduced Precipitation alter Soil Respiration during Nongrowing Season
by Guoyong Yan, Yajuan Xing, Qinggui Wang and Changcheng Mu
Forests 2020, 11(3), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030358 - 23 Mar 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2386
Abstract
The short legacy effects of growing season nitrogen (N) addition and reduced precipitation on nongrowing season soil respiration (Rs), autotrophic respiration (Ra), and heterotrophic respiration (Rh) are still unclear. Therefore, a field manipulative experiment to determine the [...] Read more.
The short legacy effects of growing season nitrogen (N) addition and reduced precipitation on nongrowing season soil respiration (Rs), autotrophic respiration (Ra), and heterotrophic respiration (Rh) are still unclear. Therefore, a field manipulative experiment to determine the responses of nongrowing season Rs and its components to growing season N addition and reduced precipitation was conducted in a temperate forest. The results show that growing season N addition and reduced precipitation significantly increased nongrowing season Rs by regulating the response of Ra and Rh. The combination of N addition and reduced precipitation also showed a much stronger effect on Rs and its components, but the magnitude and direction largely depended on the snowpack thickness. The effects of growing season N addition and reduced precipitation on nongrowing season Rs and its components were mediated by different sampling periods. N addition significantly decreased Rs by decreasing Rh in early winter and significantly increased Rs by increasing Ra in deep winter and late winter. All treatments decreased temperature sensitivity (Q10) of Rs and Rh. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of how nongrowing season Rs and its components will change under growing season N addition and reduced precipitation and could improve predictions of the future states of the soil C cycle in response to climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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8 pages, 1458 KiB  
Article
Effect of Bark-Stripping on Mechanical Stability of Norway Spruce
by Oskars Krisans, Renate Saleniece, Steffen Rust, Didzis Elferts, Rolands Kapostins, Aris Jansons and Roberts Matisons
Forests 2020, 11(3), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030357 - 21 Mar 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3307
Abstract
The increasing effects of storms are considered the main abiotic disturbance affecting forest ecosystems. Bark-stripping damage from the growing ungulate populations, in turn, are among the main biotic risks, which might burden the stability of trees and stands. Therefore, the aim of our [...] Read more.
The increasing effects of storms are considered the main abiotic disturbance affecting forest ecosystems. Bark-stripping damage from the growing ungulate populations, in turn, are among the main biotic risks, which might burden the stability of trees and stands. Therefore, the aim of our study is to estimate the effect of cervid bark-stripping on the mechanical stability of Norway spruce using a static tree-pulling test. For the test, eight damaged and 11 undamaged canopy trees were selected from a 40-year old stand (plantation with 1 × 3 m spacing) growing on mineral mesotrophic soil. The selected trees were bark-stripped 7–9 years prior to the experiment. Uprooting was the most frequent type of failure; only two trees broke at the stem. For the damaged trees, the resistance to pulling was significantly reduced (p-value < 0.001). Stem volume and presence of bark-stripping were the best linear predictors of the basal bending moment at the primary failure (irreversible deformation of wood structure) and secondary failure (collapse of the tree). A significant (p-value < 0.001) interaction between stem–wood volume and presence of bark-stripping was observed for primary failure, indicating a size-dependent reduction of stability of the damaged trees. Such interaction lacked significance (p-value = 0.43) for the secondary failure (mostly uprooting), indicating a decrease in stability irrespectively of tree size. Somewhat surprisingly, the decrease in the overall mechanical stability of the bark-stripped trees appeared not to be related to a direct reduction of the strength of the stems, but rather to physiological effects such as altered allocation of carbon, increased drought stress because of interfered hydraulic conductance of wood, or secondary infestation. The reduced stability also suggests that bark-stripped trees can act as the weak spots decreasing the collective stability of stands in the long term, thus increasing the susceptibility to storms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disturbance Dynamics Analysis for Forest Ecosystem Management)
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10 pages, 1633 KiB  
Article
Root Litter Mixing with That of Japanese Cedar Altered CO2 Emissions from Moso Bamboo Forest Soil
by Jun Pan, Yuanqiu Liu, Xinyue Yuan, Junyi Xie, Jiehui Niu, Haifu Fang, Baihui Wang, Wei Liu, Wenping Deng, Fanqian Kong, Chunmei Liu and Ling Zhang
Forests 2020, 11(3), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030356 - 21 Mar 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2533
Abstract
Research Highlights: This study examined the effect of mixing fine roots of Japanese cedar with moso bamboo on soil carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions with nitrogen (N) addition treatment. Background and Objectives: Moso bamboo expansion into adjacent forests and N deposition are [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: This study examined the effect of mixing fine roots of Japanese cedar with moso bamboo on soil carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions with nitrogen (N) addition treatment. Background and Objectives: Moso bamboo expansion into adjacent forests and N deposition are common in subtropical China. The effects of litter input on soil CO2 emissions, especially fine root litter input, are crucial to evaluate contribution of moso bamboo expansion on greenhouse gas emissions. Materials and Methods: An in situ study over 12 months was conducted to examine mixing fine roots of Japanese cedar with moso bamboo on soil CO2 emissions with simulated N deposition. Results: Fine root litter input of Japanese cedar and moso bamboo both impacted soil CO2 emission rates, with mixed litter, positively impact soil CO2 emission rate with N addition treatment. Moso bamboo fine root litter input decreased the sensitivity of soil CO2 emission rate to soil temperature. Conclusions: The encroachment of moso bamboo into adjacent forests might benefit soil C sequestration under warming climate, which will also benefit the mitigation of global climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of Microbial Diversity and Greenhouse Gas Production of Forest Decomposition)
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12 pages, 4144 KiB  
Article
Application of Paclobutrazol to Mitigate Environmental Stress of Urban Street Trees
by Bert Cregg and Dana Ellison-Smith
Forests 2020, 11(3), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030355 - 21 Mar 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4231
Abstract
Paclobutrazol is a tree growth regulator that is frequently applied by arborists to control tree growth in utility rights of way. Paclobutrazol is also marketed to mitigate tree stresses associated with urban environments. In this study we applied paclobutrazol as a soil drench [...] Read more.
Paclobutrazol is a tree growth regulator that is frequently applied by arborists to control tree growth in utility rights of way. Paclobutrazol is also marketed to mitigate tree stresses associated with urban environments. In this study we applied paclobutrazol as a soil drench to honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos L var. inermis (L.) Zab.) and Callery pear (Pyrus calleryiana Decne.) trees planted as street trees on two sites in Lansing, Michigan USA. We evaluated physiological and morphological responses for two years after treatment. Application of paclobutrazol increased SPAD chlorophyll index of trees of both species in both years, compared to untreated control trees. Application of paclobutrazol increased leaf water potential of trees on one study site (Downtown) but not the other (Old Town). Paclobutrazol increased gas exchange (net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance) of Callery pear trees on one of four measurement dates (gas exchange was not measured on honeylocust trees). Leaf size of Callery pear trees was reduced following paclobutrazol application whereas leaf size of honeylocust trees was unaffected by paclobutrazol. These results indicate that paclobutrazol can help to reduce stress of trees and improve physiological function under urban conditions. However, paclobutrazol should be viewed as part of a suite of options for arborists and landscapers to manage trees on stressful sites, rather than as a replacement for proper overall care. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiology and Management of Trees in Landscapes and Nursery Production)
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24 pages, 2593 KiB  
Article
Light Shock Stress after Outdoor Sunlight Exposure in Seedlings of Picea abies (L.) Karst. and Pinus sylvestris L. Pre-Cultivated under LEDs—Possible Mitigation Treatments and Their Energy Consumption
by Marco Hernandez Velasco and Anders Mattsson
Forests 2020, 11(3), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030354 - 21 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3197
Abstract
Year-round cultivation under light emitting diodes (LEDs) has gained interest in boreal forest regions like Fenno-Scandinavia. This concept offers forest nurseries an option to increase seedling production normally restricted by the short vegetation period and the climate conditions. In contrast to some horticultural [...] Read more.
Year-round cultivation under light emitting diodes (LEDs) has gained interest in boreal forest regions like Fenno-Scandinavia. This concept offers forest nurseries an option to increase seedling production normally restricted by the short vegetation period and the climate conditions. In contrast to some horticultural crops which can be cultivated entirely under LEDs without sunlight, forest seedlings need to be transplanted outdoors in the nursery at a very young age before being outplanted in the field. Juvenile plants are less efficient using absorbed light and dissipating excess energy making them prone to photoinhibition at conditions that usually do not harm mature plants. The outdoor transfer can cause stress in the seedlings due to high sunlight intensity and exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation not typically present in the spectra of LED lamps. This study tested possible treatments for mitigating light shock stress in seedlings of Picea abies (L.) Karst. and Pinus sylvestris L. transplanted from indoor cultivation under LEDs to outdoor sunlight exposure. Three sowings were carried out in 2014 (May and June) and 2015 (May) cultivating the seedlings during five weeks under LED lights only. Afterwards, higher light intensity or UV radiation treatments were applied during one week in order to adapt the seedlings to natural outdoor conditions. After transplanting a transition phase was introduced using shading cloths for one or three weeks as outdoor treatments for light shock mitigation. Chlorophyll fluorescence (ChlF) levels and CO2 assimilation rates were measured before transplanting and followed outdoors during 5 weeks. The ChlF results revealed stress symptoms in the photoreceptors during the first days after transplanting. After five weeks outdoors the ChlF levels had recovered and the light saturation points had shifted, allowing higher CO2 assimilation rates. By the end of the vegetation period the morphological attributes showed no major differences between treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Different Light Spectra in Growing Forest Tree Seedlings)
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10 pages, 4004 KiB  
Article
Micro-Hotspots for Conservation: An Umbrella Tree Species for the Unique Socotran Reptile Fauna
by Raquel Vasconcelos, Eudald Pujol-Buxó, Gustavo A. Llorente, Ahmed Saeed and Salvador Carranza
Forests 2020, 11(3), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030353 - 21 Mar 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5353
Abstract
Umbrella species are defined as species that can be rare and sensitive to human disturbance, whose protection may confer the protection of other co-occurring species. The dragon’s blood tree Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. was already considered an umbrella species on Socotra Island (Indic Ocean, [...] Read more.
Umbrella species are defined as species that can be rare and sensitive to human disturbance, whose protection may confer the protection of other co-occurring species. The dragon’s blood tree Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. was already considered an umbrella species on Socotra Island (Indic Ocean, Yemen) due to its ecological importance for some native biota. We studied the reptile community living on D. cinnabari from Socotra Island. We sampled reptiles on trees across most D. cinnabari populations and applied co-occurrence and network partition analyses to check if the presence of reptiles on D. cinnabari populations was random or structured. Regardless of its patched and scarce actual distribution, we report the use of this tree as a habitat by more than half of the reptile community (12 endemic reptiles). Co-occurrence and network partition analyses demonstrate that this community is structured across the distribution of dragon’s blood trees, reflecting complex allopatric, vicariant, and biotic interaction processes. Hence, these trees act as micro-hotspots for reptiles, that is, as areas where endemic and rare species that are under threat at the landscape scale co-occur. This Socotra endemic tree is currently threatened by overgrazing, overmaturity, and climate change. Its protection and declaration as an umbrella species are expected to benefit the reptile community and to protect evolutionary processes that are partially driven by the ecological links between reptiles and this tree. To our knowledge, no tree species has been proposed as an umbrella species for island vertebrate endemics so far, highlighting the ecological uniqueness of Socotra Island. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dragon Trees - Tertiary Relicts in Current Reality)
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11 pages, 2371 KiB  
Article
Role of the Dominant Species on the Distributions of Neighbor Species in a Subtropical Forest
by Shiguang Wei, Lin Li, Juyu Lian, Scott E. Nielsen, Zhigao Wang, Lingfeng Mao, Xuejun Ouyang, Honglin Cao and Wanhui Ye
Forests 2020, 11(3), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030352 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2855
Abstract
Understanding the role of dominant species in structuring the distribution of neighbor species is an important part of understanding community assembly, a central goal of ecology. Phylogenetic information helps resolve the multitude of processes driving community assembly and the importance of evolution in [...] Read more.
Understanding the role of dominant species in structuring the distribution of neighbor species is an important part of understanding community assembly, a central goal of ecology. Phylogenetic information helps resolve the multitude of processes driving community assembly and the importance of evolution in the assembly process. In this study, we classified species in a 20-ha subtropical forest in southern China into groups with different degrees of phylogenetic relatedness to the dominant species Castanopsis chinensis. Species surrounding individuals of C. chinensis were sampled in an equal area annulus at six spatial scales, counting the percent of relatives and comparing this to permutation tests of a null model and variance among species groups. The results demonstrated that dominant species affected their relatives depending on community successional stage. Theory would predict that competitive exclusion and density-dependence mechanisms should lead to neighbors that are more distant in phylogeny from C. chinensis. However, in mature forests distant relatives were subjected to competitive repulsion by C. chinensis, while environment filtering led to fewer distant species, regardless of scale. A variety of biological and non-biological factors appear to result in a U-shaped quantitative distribution determined by the dominant species C. chinensis. Scale effects also influenced the dominant species. As a dominant species, C. chinensis played an important role in structuring the species distributions and coexistence of neighbor species in a subtropical forest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling of Species Distribution and Biodiversity in Forests)
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13 pages, 1721 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Crop Tree Management on the Fine Root Traits of Pinus massoniana in Sichuan Province, China
by Xiangjun Li, Yu Su, Haifeng Yin, Size Liu, Gang Chen, Chuan Fan, Maosong Feng and Xianwei Li
Forests 2020, 11(3), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030351 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3062
Abstract
Pinus massoniana is an important tree species for wind protection and timber forests in Southern China. In recent years, P. massoniana plantations have been developed on more than 11,300,000 hm2 in southern China, but numerous problems have been observed, such as soil [...] Read more.
Pinus massoniana is an important tree species for wind protection and timber forests in Southern China. In recent years, P. massoniana plantations have been developed on more than 11,300,000 hm2 in southern China, but numerous problems have been observed, such as soil degradation, biodiversity reduction, and ecological functional decline. Crop tree management impacts on fine root development, which can be explained by the variations in the root orders. In this study, a 36-year-old P. massoniana plantation located in Huaying, Sichuan Province, was selected as the research field. In 2015, crop tree management was initiated, with a crop tree intensity of 150 trees per hectare. After 3 years of growth, fine roots of crop and noncrop trees were collected by the sector method with an angle of 15 degrees and a radius of 2 meters. We analyzed the morphological characteristics and biomass in different root orders, and explored their carbon and nitrogen contents. The results were as follows: (1) The specific root length (SRL), root length density (RLD), and surface root area (SRA) of the crop trees were larger than those of the noncrop trees; the SRL increased significantly from 0–0.5 m to 1–1.5 m from the stem. (2) The fine root biomass of the crop trees was significantly larger than that of the noncrop trees. The fine root biomass of the crop and the noncrop trees increased with the horizontal distance from the stem from 0–0.5 m to 1–1.5 m. The morphological indexes of the noncrop trees at the distances of 1–1.5 m and 1.5–2 m were significantly different, while those of the crop trees at those distances were not. (3) The fine root C content of the crop trees was significantly higher than that of the noncrop trees and varied significantly along a vertical distribution. The fine root N content of the crop trees was significantly higher than that of the noncrop trees, and the N content of topsoil was higher than that of deeper soil. In conclusion, our results indicated that crop tree management increased the production of a large-diameter wood of P. massoniana, which might be attributed to the improvement of soil permeability and nutrient stock, and thus, the enhancement of fine root quantity and water/nutrient absorption ability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Innovative Silvicultural Treatments in Pine Forests)
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16 pages, 3543 KiB  
Article
Deep Sequencing and Analysis of Transcriptomes of Pinus koraiensis Sieb. & Zucc.
by Shaolin Shi, Siyu Yan, Chao Zhao, Peng Zhang, Ling Yang, Chao Wang and Hailong Shen
Forests 2020, 11(3), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030350 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2319
Abstract
The objective of this research was to study the differences in endogenous hormone levels and the genes related to reproductive development in Chinese pinenut (Pinus koraiensis) trees of different ages. The apical buds of P. koraiensis were collected from 2-, 5-, [...] Read more.
The objective of this research was to study the differences in endogenous hormone levels and the genes related to reproductive development in Chinese pinenut (Pinus koraiensis) trees of different ages. The apical buds of P. koraiensis were collected from 2-, 5-, 10-, 15-, and 30-year-old plants and also from grafted plants. There were three replicates from each group used for transcriptome sequencing. After assembly and annotation, we identified the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and performed enrichment analysis, pathway analysis, and expression analysis of the DEGs in each sample. The results showed that unigenes related to reproductive development, such as c64070.graph_c0 and c68641.graph_c0, were expressed at relatively low levels at young ages, and that the relative expression gradually increased with increasing plant age. In addition the highest expression levels were reached around 10 and 15 years of age, after which they gradually decreased. Moreover, some unigenes, such as c61855.graph_c0, were annotated as abscisic acid hydroxylase genes, and the expression of c61855.graph_c0 gradually declined with increasing age in P. koraiensis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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14 pages, 2979 KiB  
Article
Variation in Stem Xylem Traits is Related to Differentiation of Upper Limits of Tree Species along an Elevational Gradient
by Da Yang, Ai-Ying Wang, Jiao-Lin Zhang, Corey J. A. Bradshaw and Guang-You Hao
Forests 2020, 11(3), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030349 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3443
Abstract
The distribution limits of many plants are dictated by environmental conditions and species’ functional traits. While many studies have evaluated how plant distribution is driven by environmental conditions, there are not many studies investigating xylem vessel properties with altitude, and whether these traits [...] Read more.
The distribution limits of many plants are dictated by environmental conditions and species’ functional traits. While many studies have evaluated how plant distribution is driven by environmental conditions, there are not many studies investigating xylem vessel properties with altitude, and whether these traits correlate with altitudinal distribution of tree. Here, we investigated the upper limits of distribution for ten deciduous broadleaf tree species from three temperate montane forest communities along a large elevational gradient on the north-facing slope of Changbai Mountain in Northeast China. We measured stem xylem traits associated with a species’ ability to transport water and resist freezing-induced cavitation that theoretically represent important adaptations to changes in climatic conditions along the elevational gradient. Hydraulically weighted vessel diameter (Dh) was negatively correlated with with the upper limit across the ten studied tree species; however, the correlation seems to be driven by the large differences between ring- and diffuse-porous tree species groups. The ring-porous tree species (e.g., Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr., Maackia amurensis Rupr. et Maxim., and Phellodendron amurense Rupr.) had considerably wider vessels than the diffuse-porous species and were all limited to low-elevation communities. The coefficient of variation (CV) for Dh was 0.53 among the 10 studied species, while the intraspecific analysis showed that the highest CV was only 0.22 among the 10 species. We found no evidence of a relationship between Dh and the upper limits across the seven diffuse-porous species. In contrast to elevation, hydraulic-related xylem traits had no clear patterns of change with precipitation, indicating that hydraulic functionality was largely decoupled from the influences of precipitation in the study area. This finding suggests that xylem traits are associated with altitudinal limits of species distribution, which is mostly evidenced by the contrasts between ring- and diffuse-porous species in xylem anatomy and their altitudinal distributions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climatic Impact on Functional Wood Anatomy, Seasonal Wood Formation and Tree Growth)
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13 pages, 3119 KiB  
Article
Moisture Performance of Façade Elements Made of Thermally Modified Norway Spruce Wood
by Miha Humar, Boštjan Lesar and Davor Kržišnik
Forests 2020, 11(3), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030348 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2765
Abstract
Wooden façades are gaining in importance. Thermally modified wood is becoming one of the preferred materials for claddings. In spite of the fact that façades made of thermally modified wood have been in use for more than two decades, reports about long-term monitoring [...] Read more.
Wooden façades are gaining in importance. Thermally modified wood is becoming one of the preferred materials for claddings. In spite of the fact that façades made of thermally modified wood have been in use for more than two decades, reports about long-term monitoring have been sparse. The results of three-year monitoring of a façade made of thermally modified wood in Ljubljana are reported. Moisture content measurements of thermally modified façades were taken at 22 locations and compared to the moisture content of untreated Norway spruce wood. Temperature and relative humidity were recorded in parallel. The moisture content of the wood was compared to the average relative humidity before the measurements. The results confirm the lower moisture content of thermally modified wood in comparison to reference Norway spruce. The moisture content of the wooden façade could be best correlated with the average relative humidity and temperature 48 h before the wood moisture content measurement was taken. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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19 pages, 4169 KiB  
Article
Dendrochronological Analyses and Whole-Tree Dissections Reveal Caliciopsis Canker (Caliciopsis pinea) Damage Associated with the Declining Growth and Climatic Stressors of Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus)
by Kara K.L. Costanza, William H. Livingston, Shawn Fraver and Isabel A. Munck
Forests 2020, 11(3), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030347 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3246
Abstract
Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) is considered a signature species in eastern North America, particularly in New England. In recent years, however, white pine has experienced increased damage due to native pathogens that reduce the species’ growth, productivity, and economic value. [...] Read more.
Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) is considered a signature species in eastern North America, particularly in New England. In recent years, however, white pine has experienced increased damage due to native pathogens that reduce the species’ growth, productivity, and economic value. One disease of concern is Caliciopsis canker, caused by the fungal pathogen Caliciopsis pinea, which is associated with excessive resin production, cankers, rough bark, bark fissures/cracks, and reduced growth in white pine. Recent studies have documented the extent of Caliciopsis canker in New England and its association with soil and stocking conditions, yet few studies have focused on the biological impacts of the disease. This study used dendrochronology and whole-tree dissections to reconstruct Caliciopsis canker history in three New England white pine sites, quantify its impact on tree growth and vigor, identify pre-disposing factors, and assess potential silvicultural management options. Dendrochronology and whole-tree dissections provided a unique insight into canker damage throughout trees’ development. Canker damage was first reported in New Hampshire in the mid-1990s, yet cankers were present as far back as 1967 and have steadily increased since the mid-1980s. Increased canker damage was significantly associated with decreased live crown ratios and declining tree growth. Trees maintaining a 30% live crown ratio or greater generally experienced the least canker damage. Furthermore, peaks in canker occurrence were consistent across sites, indicating a regional synchronization of infection and damage. Canker damage was closely associated with climatic events such as droughts and a New England hurricane. The results suggest that Caliciopsis canker has been affecting white pine health over the last 40 years, and that the disease has become more prevalent in the past 20–30 years. Yet, our results suggest that if silvicultural prescriptions target low density thinnings that favor trees with higher live crown ratios (>30%) and low Caliciopsis symptom severity ratings, the risk of canker damage can be reduced in white pine stands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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27 pages, 2963 KiB  
Article
Combining Climate Change Mitigation Scenarios with Current Forest Owner Behavior: A Scenario Study from a Region in Southern Sweden
by Isak Lodin, Ljusk Ola Eriksson, Nicklas Forsell and Anu Korosuo
Forests 2020, 11(3), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030346 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5886
Abstract
This study investigates the need for change of current forest management approaches in a southern Swedish region within the context of future climate change mitigation through empirically derived projections, rather than forest management according to silvicultural guidelines. Scenarios indicate that climate change mitigation [...] Read more.
This study investigates the need for change of current forest management approaches in a southern Swedish region within the context of future climate change mitigation through empirically derived projections, rather than forest management according to silvicultural guidelines. Scenarios indicate that climate change mitigation will increase global wood demand. This might call for adjustments of well-established management approaches. This study investigates to what extent increasing wood demands in three climate change mitigation scenarios can be satisfied with current forest management approaches of different intensities in a southern Swedish region. Forest management practices in Kronoberg County were mapped through interviews, statistics, and desk research and were translated into five different management strategies with different intensities regulating management at the property level. The consequences of current practices, as well as their intensification, were analyzed with the Heureka Planwise forest planning system in combination with a specially developed forest owner decision simulator. Projections were done over a 100-year period under three climate change mitigation scenarios developed with the Global Biosphere Management Model (GLOBIUM). Current management practices could meet scenario demands during the first 20 years. This was followed by a shortage of wood during two periods in all scenarios unless rotations were reduced. In a longer timeframe, the wood demands were projected to be easily satisfied in the less ambitious climate change mitigation scenarios. In contrast, the demand in the ambitious mitigation scenario could not be met with current management practices, not even if all owners managed their production forests at the intensive extreme of current management approaches. The climate change mitigation scenarios provide very different trajectories with respect to future drivers of forest management. Our results indicate that with less ambitious mitigation efforts, the relatively intensive practices in the study region can be softened while ambitious mitigation might push for further intensification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Decision Support to Address Multiple Ecosystem Services in Forest Management Planning)
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19 pages, 10799 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Characteristics of the Fine Roots of Two Broadleaved Tree Species from the Temperate Caspian Hyrcanian Ecoregion
by Azade Deljouei, Ehsan Abdi, Massimiliano Schwarz, Baris Majnounian, Hormoz Sohrabi and R. Kasten Dumroese
Forests 2020, 11(3), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030345 - 20 Mar 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2884
Abstract
In view of the important role played by roots against shallow landslides, root tensile force was evaluated for two widespread temperate tree species within the Caspian Hyrcanian Ecoregion, i.e., Fagus orientalis L. and Carpinus betulus L. Fine roots (0.02 to 7.99 mm) were [...] Read more.
In view of the important role played by roots against shallow landslides, root tensile force was evaluated for two widespread temperate tree species within the Caspian Hyrcanian Ecoregion, i.e., Fagus orientalis L. and Carpinus betulus L. Fine roots (0.02 to 7.99 mm) were collected from five trees of each species at three different elevations (400, 950, and 1350 m a.s.l.), across three diameter at breast height (DBH) classes (small = 7.5–32.5 cm, medium = 32.6–57.5 cm, and large =57.6–82.5 cm), and at two slope positions relative to the tree stem (up- and down-slope). In the laboratory, maximum tensile force (N) required to break the root was determined for 2016 roots (56 roots per each of two species x three sites x three DBH classes x two slope positions). ANCOVA was used to test the effects of slope position, DBH, and study site on root tensile force. To obtain the power-law regression coefficients, a nonlinear least square method was used. We found that: 1) root tensile force strongly depends on root size, 2) F. orientalis roots are stronger than C. betulus ones in the large DBH class, although they are weaker in the medium and small DBH classes, 3) root mechanical resistance is higher upslope than downslope, 4) roots of the trees with larger DBH were the most resistant roots in tension in compare with roots of the medium or small DBH classes, and 5) the root tensile force for both species is notably different from one site to another site. Overall, our findings provide a fundamental contribution to the quantification of the protective effects of forests in the temperate region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptation of the Root System to the Environment)
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13 pages, 1273 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Individual Distance-Independent Diameter Growth Models for Japanese Cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) Trees under Multiple Thinning Treatments
by Keiko Fukumoto, Tomohiro Nishizono, Fumiaki Kitahara and Kazuo Hosoda
Forests 2020, 11(3), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030344 - 19 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2478
Abstract
Understanding the tree growth process is essential for sustainable forest management. Future yields are affected by various forest management regimes such as thinning; therefore, accurate predictions of tree growth are needed under various thinning intensities. This study compared the accuracy of individual-level distance-independent [...] Read more.
Understanding the tree growth process is essential for sustainable forest management. Future yields are affected by various forest management regimes such as thinning; therefore, accurate predictions of tree growth are needed under various thinning intensities. This study compared the accuracy of individual-level distance-independent diameter growth models constructed for different thinning intensities (thinning intensity-dependent multiple models: TDM model) against the model designed to include all thinning intensities (thinning intensity-independent single model: TIS model) to understand how model accuracy is affected by thinning intensity. We used long-term permanent plot data of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) stands in Japan, which was gathered from four plots where thinning was conducted at different thinning intensities: (1) intensive (41% and 38% of trees removed at 25 and 37 years old, respectively), (2) moderate (38% and 34%), (3) light (32% and 34%), and (4) no thinning. First, we specified high interpretability distance-independent competition indices, and we compared the model accuracy both in TDM and TIS models. The results show that the relative spacing index was the best competition index both in TDM and TIS models across all thinning intensities, and the differences in the RMSE (Root mean square error) and rRMSE (relative RMSE) in both TDM and TIS models were 0.001–0.01 cm and 0.2–2%, respectively. In the TIS model, rRMSE varied with thinning intensity; the rRMSE was the lowest for moderate thinning intensity (45.8%) and the highest for no thinning (59.4%). In addition, bias values were negative for the TIS model for all thinning intensities. These results suggest that the TIS model could express diameter growth regardless of thinning intensities. However, the rRMSE had varied with thinning intensity and bias had negative values in the TIS model. Therefore, more model improvements are required for accurate predictions of long-term growth of actual Japanese cedar stands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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24 pages, 1865 KiB  
Review
Stand Structural Characteristics Are the Most Practical Biodiversity Indicators for Forest Management Planning in Europe
by Marija Ćosović, Miguel N. Bugalho, Dominik Thom and José G. Borges
Forests 2020, 11(3), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030343 - 19 Mar 2020
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8454
Abstract
Including biodiversity assessments in forest management planning is becoming increasingly important due to the importance of biodiversity for forest ecosystem resilience provision and sustainable functioning. Here we investigated the potential to include biodiversity indicators into forest management planning in Europe. In particular, we [...] Read more.
Including biodiversity assessments in forest management planning is becoming increasingly important due to the importance of biodiversity for forest ecosystem resilience provision and sustainable functioning. Here we investigated the potential to include biodiversity indicators into forest management planning in Europe. In particular, we aimed to (i) identify biodiversity indicators and data collection methods for biodiversity assessments at the stand and landscape levels, and (ii) evaluate the practicality of those indicators for forest management planning. We performed a literature review in which we screened 188 research studies published between 1990 and 2020. We selected 94 studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria and examined in more detail. We considered three aspects of biodiversity: structure, composition, and function, and four forest management categories: unmanaged, managed, plantation, and silvopastoral. We used three criteria to evaluate the practicality of forest biodiversity indicators: cost-effectiveness, ease of application, and time-effectiveness. We identified differences in the practicality of biodiversity indicators for their incorporation into management plans. Stand-level indicators are more practical than landscape-level indicators. Moreover, structural biodiversity indicators (e.g., large trees, canopy openness, and old forest stands) are more useful in management plans than compositional indicators, as these are easily observable by non-professionals and can be obtained by forest inventories. Compositional indicators such are vascular plants, fungi, bryophyte, lichens, and invertebrate species are hard to identify by non-professionals and thus are impractical. Functional indicators (e.g., nutrient cycling) are not sufficiently addressed in the literature. Using recently updated existing databases (e.g., national forest inventories and bird atlases) is very time and cost-efficient. Remote sensing and other technology (e.g., smartphone applications) are promising for efficient data collection in the future. However, more research is needed to make these tools more accurate and applicable to a variety of ecological conditions and scales. Until then, forest stand structural variables derived from inventories can help improve management plans to prepare European forests towards an uncertain future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Structural Characteristics and Their Relationship with Ecosystem Services and Functions)
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17 pages, 1000 KiB  
Article
The Risk of Bark and Ambrosia Beetles Associated with Imported Non-Coniferous Wood and Potential Horizontal Phytosanitary Measures
by Fabienne Grousset, Jean-Claude Grégoire, Hervé Jactel, Andrea Battisti, Anita Benko Beloglavec, Boris Hrašovec, Jiri Hulcr, Daegan Inward, Andrei Orlinski and Françoise Petter
Forests 2020, 11(3), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030342 - 19 Mar 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3408
Abstract
Many bark and ambrosia beetle species (Coleoptera: Scolytinae and Platypodinae) are known to have spread worldwide in relation to international trade. Concerns have been expressed within the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) about recent introductions of non-indigenous species of these groups. [...] Read more.
Many bark and ambrosia beetle species (Coleoptera: Scolytinae and Platypodinae) are known to have spread worldwide in relation to international trade. Concerns have been expressed within the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) about recent introductions of non-indigenous species of these groups. Regulation of the non-coniferous wood trade into many EPPO member countries is currently not sufficient to cover such risks. In 2018–2019, an EPPO study on the risk of bark and ambrosia beetles associated with imported non-coniferous wood was carried out, and the key characteristics contributing to the pest risk from introduced species were determined using expert consensus. This paper summarizes the key findings of the study, which are available in full detail on the EPPO website. The study identified biological and other risk factors and illustrated them with examples from 26 beetle species or groups of species known to be invasive or posing a threat to plant health. These representative species were classified into three categories based on known damage and level of uncertainty. In the present article, factorial discriminant analyses were used to identify features of bark and ambrosia beetle biology associated with damage caused and invasiveness. Based on the information assembled and consideration of the risk factors, it was recommended that in order to prevent the introduction of new bark and ambrosia beetles via non-coniferous wood commodities, horizontal phytosanitary measures should be adopted, irrespective of the host plant species and the origin (i.e., for all genera of non-coniferous woody plants and from all origins). Phytosanitary measures are presented here for various wood commodities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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14 pages, 1981 KiB  
Article
Forwarder Productivity in Salvage Logging Operations in Difficult Terrain
by Alberto Cadei, Omar Mologni, Dominik Röser, Raffaele Cavalli and Stefano Grigolato
Forests 2020, 11(3), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030341 - 19 Mar 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4042
Abstract
Large scale windthrow salvage logging is increasing in Central Europe because of the growth of severe atmospheric events due to global heating. Sustainable forest operations in these conditions are challenging in terms of both productivity performances and safety of the operations. Fully mechanized [...] Read more.
Large scale windthrow salvage logging is increasing in Central Europe because of the growth of severe atmospheric events due to global heating. Sustainable forest operations in these conditions are challenging in terms of both productivity performances and safety of the operations. Fully mechanized harvesting systems are the preferred solution on trafficable terrains and proper slopes. However, different work methods and logistic organization of the operations could largely change the overall performances. The study observed three harvesting sites based on fully mechanized cut-to-length systems and located in areas affected by the Vaia storm, which hit north-eastern Italy in October 2018. The objectives were to estimate forwarder productivity in salvage logging in difficult terrain and to identify significant variables affecting this productivity under real working conditions. Time and motion studies were carried out and covered 59.9 PMH15, for a total of 101 working cycles, extracting a total volume of 1277 m3 of timber. Average time consumption for each site was 38.7, 42.2, and 25.1 PMH15 with average productivity of 22.5, 18.5, and 29.4 m3/PMH15, respectively, for Sites A, B, and C. A total of seven explanatory variables significantly affected forwarder productivity. Average load volume, maximum machine inclination during loading, and number of logs positively affected the productivity. On the contrary, travel distance, load volume, maximum ground slope during moving and loading have a negative influence. With an average travel distance of 500 m, the productivity resulted 20.52, 16.31, and 23.03 m3/PMH15, respectively, for Sites A, B, and C. An increase of 200 m of travel distance causes a decrease in productivity of 6%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Operations in Environmentally Sensitive Areas)
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15 pages, 4150 KiB  
Article
Response of Vegetation to Changes in Temperature and Precipitation at a Semi-Arid Area of Northern China Based on Multi-Statistical Methods
by Yifan Wu, Xuan Zhang, Yongshuo Fu, Fanghua Hao and Guodong Yin
Forests 2020, 11(3), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030340 - 19 Mar 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2960
Abstract
Hydrothermal and climatic conditions determine vegetation productivity and its dynamic changes. However, the legacy effect and the causal relationships between these climatic variables and vegetation growth are still unclear, especially in the dry regions. Based on multi-statistical methods, including bivariate correlation analysis and [...] Read more.
Hydrothermal and climatic conditions determine vegetation productivity and its dynamic changes. However, the legacy effect and the causal relationships between these climatic variables and vegetation growth are still unclear, especially in the dry regions. Based on multi-statistical methods, including bivariate correlation analysis and composite Granger causality tests, we investigated the correlation, causality, and lag length between temperature/precipitation and the vegetation growth (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI) in three typical sub-watersheds in the Luanhe River Basin, China. The results show that: (1) Precipitation and temperature are the Granger causes of NDVI variation in the study catchment; (2) temperature and precipitation are not strictly positively correlated with NDVI during growing seasons along with the whole sequence, and excessive warmth and precipitation inhibits vegetative growth; (3) the lag length of vegetation growth in response to temperature/precipitation was shorter in agriculture areas (~2 months) than the forest-dominant area, which have indicated 3–4 months lag length; and (4) anthropogenic disturbance did not result in notable negative effects on vegetation growth at the Luanhe River Basin. Our study further suggests that use of these multi-statistical methods could be a valuable approach for comprehensively understanding the correlation between vegetation growth and climatic variations. We have also provided an avenue to bridge the gaps between stationary and non-stationary sequence, as well as to eliminate pseudo regression problems. These findings provide critical information for developing cost-efficient policies and land use management applications for forest conservation in arid and semi-arid area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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14 pages, 1419 KiB  
Article
Simulating Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze Timber Stocks With Liocourt’s Law in a Natural Forest in Southern Brazil
by Emanuel Arnoni Costa, Veraldo Liesenberg, André Felipe Hess, César Augusto Guimarães Finger, Paulo Renato Schneider, Régis Villanova Longhi, Cristine Tagliapietra Schons and Geedre Adriano Borsoi
Forests 2020, 11(3), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030339 - 18 Mar 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3099
Abstract
This paper presents a simulation of the regulation of Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze timber stocks using Liocourt’s law. Although this species is currently protected by law, recent government initiatives are being considered to propose sustainable forest management practices by selecting small rural properties [...] Read more.
This paper presents a simulation of the regulation of Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze timber stocks using Liocourt’s law. Although this species is currently protected by law, recent government initiatives are being considered to propose sustainable forest management practices by selecting small rural properties in Southern Brazil. Here, we simulate the applicability of Liocourt’s law in a typical rural property, the size of which is approximately 85 ha. Forest inventory measurements were conducted by estimating the diameter at the breast height (d), total height (h), and annual diameter increments of 308 trees that fit the criteria of d ≥ 10 cm, distributed on 35 permanent plots of 400 m2 each. As a result, a reverse J-shaped d distribution was found. On average, 303 trees can be found per hectare (ha). Local allometric equations showed their basal area (G) to be 21.9 m2∙ha−1, and their commercial volume (V) to be 172 m3∙ha−1, whereas Liocourt’s quotient (q) was 1.31. Based on these attributes, nine different forest management scenarios were proposed by simulating a remaining basal area (Grem) of 10.0, 14.0, and 18.0 m2∙ha−1, and Liocourt’s quotient was changed to 1.1, 1.3, and 1.5. All scenarios consider a d of 62.5 cm. In the less intensive scenario (i.e., q value = 1.5 and larger basal area of 18.0 m2·ha−1) there is greater optimization of space, and higher economic return is ensured to rural producers due to the definition of shorter cutting cycles. This also allows a faster growth rate in both d and h for smaller trees, due to the higher incidence of light onto the lower canopy layer, increasing the natural regeneration implementation of other native species. Forest management should thus be considered a goal in addition to consumer market characteristics for defining the ideal timber stock scenario. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Effect on Mixed-Species Forest Management)
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19 pages, 5801 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Forest Edge Structure and Stability in Peri-Urban Forests
by David Hladnik, Andrej Kobler and Janez Pirnat
Forests 2020, 11(3), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030338 - 18 Mar 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3554
Abstract
In the presented research, we studied the forest edge structure of urban and peri-urban forests on the outskirts of Ljubljana (Slovenia) consisting of a number of patches covering the collective surface of 1884 ha. They differ from each other according to the degree [...] Read more.
In the presented research, we studied the forest edge structure of urban and peri-urban forests on the outskirts of Ljubljana (Slovenia) consisting of a number of patches covering the collective surface of 1884 ha. They differ from each other according to the degree of fragmentation and by the share of the interior forest area. On the basis of LiDAR data, we conducted an analysis of the edges of the persistent forest patches and estimated them with regard to the land use they bordered on. The horizontal estimation of forest edges and the changes of forest edges, in the last decades, were estimated using digital orthophoto images of cyclic aerial surveys of Slovenia, from 1975 to 2018. The data, provided by LiDAR, were used to obtain an accurate estimate of forest edges and the metrics of their vertical canopy structure. On the basis of the canopy height model (CHM), we determined the height classes, the heights of the tallest trees, and indices of canopy height diversity (CHD) as variables subjected to a k-means cluster analysis. To determine the forest edge and trees stability, their heights and diameters at breast height (DBH) were measured and their canopy length and h/d (height/diameter) dimension ratios were estimated. In the study area of the Golovec forest patch, more than half of the forest edge segments (56%) border on residential buildings. After the construction of buildings, 54% of the newly formed forest edges developed a high and steep structure. Unfavorable h/d dimension ratio was estimated for 16% of trees, more among the coniferous than among the deciduous trees. Similar characteristics of newly formed forest edges bordering on built-up areas were determined in other sub-urban forest patches, despite the smaller share of such forest edges (19% and 10%, respectively). Tools and methods presented in the research enable the implementation of concrete silvicultural practices in a realistic time period and extend to ensure that adequate forestry measures are taken to minimize possible disturbances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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23 pages, 8789 KiB  
Article
Twenty-Five Years after Stand Thinning and Repeated Fertilization in Lodgepole Pine Forest: Implications for Tree Growth, Stand Structure, and Carbon Sequestration
by Thomas P. Sullivan, Druscilla S. Sullivan, Pontus M.F. Lindgren, Douglas B. Ransome and Lisa Zabek
Forests 2020, 11(3), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030337 - 18 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3856
Abstract
Silvicultural practices such as pre-commercial thinning (PCT) and repeated fertilization have been used successfully around the world to increase forest biomass for conventional wood products, biofuels, and carbon sequestration. Two complementary studies were designed to test the hypotheses (H) that large-scale PCT and [...] Read more.
Silvicultural practices such as pre-commercial thinning (PCT) and repeated fertilization have been used successfully around the world to increase forest biomass for conventional wood products, biofuels, and carbon sequestration. Two complementary studies were designed to test the hypotheses (H) that large-scale PCT and PCT with repeated fertilization of young (13–17 years old) lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) stands, at 25 years after the onset of treatments, would enhance (H1) productivity and structural features (diameter and height growth, crown volume and dimensions) of crop trees; (H2) merchantable volume of crop trees, (H3) abundance of understory conifer, herb and shrub layers, and (H4) carbon storage (sequestration) of all layers. Results are from two studies in south-central British Columbia, Canada. The PCT study had three densities: 500, 1000, and 2000 stems/ha, an unthinned, and old-growth stand replicated at three areas. The PCT-FERT study had four densities: 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 stems/ha with and without a repeated fertilization treatment, and an unthinned-unfertilized stand, replicated at two areas. Heavily thinned (≤1000 stems/ha) and fertilized stands generally had larger mean diameters and crown dimensions than lightly thinned or unfertilized stands, whereas mean heights of crop trees remained relatively unaffected, and hence partial support for H1. Despite differences in stand density (4- and 8-fold) of original crop trees, ingress of intermediate crop trees over the 25 years changed density dramatically. There was no support for H2, as mean merchantable volume of total crop trees was similar across stand densities owing to ingress, and was also similar in fertilized and unfertilized stands. In stands thinned to ≤500 trees/ha, there is an anticipated increase in crop tree density of 2.2 to 4.3 times over 25 years compared with the original post-thinning densities. Mean abundance of understory conifers was generally similar among stands owing to successional development towards canopy closure, whereas herbs and shrubs persisted only in canopy gaps in heavily thinned stands, thereby providing no support for H3. Mean carbon storage was similar across densities in both studies with ingress contributing a considerable amount to carbon sequestration at the lower densities. Fertilization increased (1.4 times) mean carbon storage significantly among total crop trees, total conifers, and the grand total of all layers, thereby providing partial support for H4. Thus, much of the potential above-ground carbon storage lost by thinning was restored in the heavily thinned stands at 25 years post-treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Innovative Silvicultural Treatments in Pine Forests)
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26 pages, 1784 KiB  
Discussion
Potential of Birch (Betula pendula Roth and B. pubescens Ehrh.) for Forestry and Forest-Based Industry Sector within the Changing Climatic and Socio-Economic Context of Western Europe
by Héloïse Dubois, Erkki Verkasalo and Hugues Claessens
Forests 2020, 11(3), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030336 - 17 Mar 2020
Cited by 77 | Viewed by 7428
Abstract
Five commercial tree species comprise nearly 80% of the forest standing stock volume in Western Europe. Nowadays, there is a strong need to consider a wider diversity of tree species, as evidenced by the impact of climate change and the forest health crises [...] Read more.
Five commercial tree species comprise nearly 80% of the forest standing stock volume in Western Europe. Nowadays, there is a strong need to consider a wider diversity of tree species, as evidenced by the impact of climate change and the forest health crises over the past decades. In this context, this study focuses on the potential of birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.), a neglected indigenous species, for forestry and the forest-based industry sector. We have therefore compiled, analyzed, and discussed literature regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the species and the opportunities and threats of its use for this purpose. Among the strengths, birch tolerates various climates and sites, and high genetic variability promotes its adaptability. Birch improves forest resilience by colonizing forest gaps and quickly increasing soil functioning and biodiversity. Birch is also remarkably resistant to game overpopulation-associated damage. Large-sized logs are produced within relatively short periods with proper silvicultural treatment, and the wood characteristics allow versatile and valuable uses, as shown in Northern Europe. However, its weaknesses include high sensitivity to crown competition and to wood rot as challenges for silviculture. Among the opportunities, birch is well-suited to the global changes with its adaptability to climate change and its possible integration in diverse productive mixed tree stands. In the context of societal evolutions and customer perceptions, birch wood could play an increasing role in the building and furniture sectors, and among non-wood forest products. In Western Europe, the main obstacle to birch development is the lack of information on the wood uses and, consequently, the lack of interest among forest managers and wood processing professionals, which have led to a poor quality of the resource and to insufficient demand for its wood. Moreover, its fast height growth can affect the vitality of other species in mixed stands. Our analysis highlighted the potential of birch in the Western European forestry considering societal, ecological, and economic purposes in a changing climatic and socio-economic context and the need to (i) develop opportunities for industrial uses of birch wood, (ii) inform forest owners, managers, and industrial professionals about the potential value of birch, and (iii) define silvicultural guidelines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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19 pages, 3544 KiB  
Article
Mapping Forest Disturbances between 1987–2016 Using All Available Time Series Landsat TM/ETM+ Imagery: Developing a Reliable Methodology for Georgia, United States
by Shingo Obata, Pete Bettinger, Chris J. Cieszewski and Roger C. Lowe III
Forests 2020, 11(3), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030335 - 17 Mar 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3251
Abstract
Forest resources have a high economic value in the State of Georgia (USA) and the landscape is frequently disturbed as a part of forest management activities, such as plantation forest management activities. Thus, tracking the stand-clearing disturbance history in a spatially referenced manner [...] Read more.
Forest resources have a high economic value in the State of Georgia (USA) and the landscape is frequently disturbed as a part of forest management activities, such as plantation forest management activities. Thus, tracking the stand-clearing disturbance history in a spatially referenced manner might be pivotal in discussions of forest resource sustainability within the State. The two major objectives of this research are (i) to develop and test a reliable methodology for statewide tracking of forest disturbances in Georgia, (ii) to consider and discuss the use and implications of the information derived from the forest disturbance map. Two primary disturbance detection methods, a threshold algorithm and a statistical boundary method, were combined to develop a robust estimation of recent forest disturbance history. The developed model was used to create a forest disturbance record for the years 1987–2016, through the use of all available Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)/Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) data. The final product was a raster database, where each pixel was assigned a value corresponding to the last disturbance year. The overall accuracy of the forest disturbance map was 87%, and it indicated that 4,503,253 ha, equivalent to 29.2% of the total land area in Georgia, experienced disturbances between 1987 and 2016. The estimated disturbed area in each year was highly variable and ranged between 84,651 ha (±36,354 ha) to 211,780 ha (±49,504 ha). By combining the use of the disturbance map along with the 2016 database from the National Land Cover Database (NLCD), we also analyzed the regional variation in the disturbance history. This analysis indicated that disturbed forests in urban areas were more likely to be converted to other land-uses. The forest disturbance record created in this research provides the necessary spatial data and address forest resource sustainability in Georgia. Additionally, the methodology used has application in the analysis of other resources, such as the estimation of the aboveground forest biomass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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18 pages, 7650 KiB  
Article
A Statistical Approach to Detect Land Cover Changes in Mediterranean Ecosystems Using Multi-Temporal Landsat Data: The Case Study of Pianosa Island, Italy
by Maurizio Sarti, Francesco Primo Vaccari, Carlo Calfapietra, Enrico Brugnoli and Andrea Scartazza
Forests 2020, 11(3), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030334 - 17 Mar 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2238
Abstract
The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is commonly used to detect spatiotemporal changes of vegetation cover. This study modeled the spatiotemporal changes of land cover on Pianosa Island, Italy, in the period 1999–2015, using the multi-temporal Landsat images. Since the end of the [...] Read more.
The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is commonly used to detect spatiotemporal changes of vegetation cover. This study modeled the spatiotemporal changes of land cover on Pianosa Island, Italy, in the period 1999–2015, using the multi-temporal Landsat images. Since the end of the 1990s, the natural vegetation has been re-colonizing an area of abandoned agricultural land and the island is undergoing a process of re-naturalization in harsh (drought and hot) environmental conditions. Hence, it is an ideal test site to monitor the effects of anthropogenic and climatic stressors on vegetation dynamics under Mediterranean climate. In this work, we proposed a new statistical approach based on a pixel-by-pixel analysis of multi-temporal Landsat images. Mean (µ) and standard deviation (σ) values of the NDVI images taken in 2015 were used for the determination of the pixel thresholds (µ ± 3σ). The evaluation of land cover change was carried out by comparing the µ value of a single NDVI pixel for 2015 with the same pixel of different years of the study period. The results indicate that surface reflectance (SR) Landsat images are more suitable in detecting the vegetation dynamics on the island than the top of atmosphere (TOA) ones and highlight an increasing trend of vegetation cover on Pianosa Island, mainly during the early seven years following the land abandonment in all the main land cover classes: abandoned crops and pastures, Mediterranean macchia, and woodland. However, the abandoned agricultural and pasture areas showed a higher increase in the vegetation cover and a shift in the shape of the normalized frequency distribution of the SR NDVI data during the study period, suggesting that a colonization process from other vegetation classes is occurring (i.e., Mediterranean macchia and trees are colonizing the abandoned land, partly replacing herbaceous species). Our data highlight that the statistical approach applied in this study is suitable for detecting vegetation cover changes associated with anthropogenic and climatic drivers in a typical Mediterranean environment and could be proposed as a new methodological approach in several other land monitoring studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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13 pages, 2215 KiB  
Article
Early Regeneration Dynamics of Pure Black Spruce and Aspen Forests after Wildfire in Boreal Alberta, Canada
by Stephanie A. Jean, Bradley D. Pinno and Scott E. Nielsen
Forests 2020, 11(3), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030333 - 17 Mar 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3438
Abstract
Research Highlights: Black spruce (Picea mariana Mill.) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) both regenerated vigorously after wildfire. However, pure semi-upland black spruce stands are at increasing risk of changing successional trajectories, due to greater aspen recruitment. Background and Objectives: Black [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: Black spruce (Picea mariana Mill.) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) both regenerated vigorously after wildfire. However, pure semi-upland black spruce stands are at increasing risk of changing successional trajectories, due to greater aspen recruitment. Background and Objectives: Black spruce and aspen are found across the boreal forest with black spruce dominating lowlands and aspen being common in uplands. Both species are well adapted to wildfire with black spruce holding an aerial seedbank while aspen reproduce rapidly via root suckering. In the summer of 2016, the Horse River wildfire burned 589,617 hectares of northern Alberta’s boreal forest. Methods: We assessed early regeneration dynamics of both pure aspen and pure black spruce forests. For black spruce, 12 plots were established in both bog and semi-upland habitats to assess seedling regeneration and seedbed availability. For aspen, 12 plots were established in each of the low, moderate, and high burn severities, as well as 5 unburned plots. Results: Post-fire black spruce regeneration densities did not differ between bog and semi-upland habitats, but were positively correlated with forb cover and charred organic matter seedbeds. Aspen regeneration within pure black sprue stands was substantial, particularly in semi-upland habitats, indicating a potential shift in successional trajectory. Fire severity did not significantly affect aspen regeneration in pure aspen stands, but regeneration density in all severity types was >90,000 stems ha−1. Aspen regeneration densities were negatively related to post-fire forb and shrub cover, likely due to competition and cooler soil temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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