Forests

16 pages, 5930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Tree Species Deciduousness of Tropical Dry Forests Combining Reflectance, Spectral Unmixing, and Texture Data from High-Resolution Imagery

by Astrid Helena Huechacona-Ruiz, Juan Manuel Dupuy, Naomi B. Schwartz, Jennifer S. Powers, Casandra Reyes-García, Fernando Tun-Dzul and José Luis Hernández-Stefanoni

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1234; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111234 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4105

Abstract

In tropical dry forests, deciduousness (i.e., leaf shedding during the dry season) is an important adaptation of plants to cope with water limitation, which helps trees adjust to seasonal drought. Deciduousness is also a critical factor determining the timing and duration of carbon [...] Read more.

In tropical dry forests, deciduousness (i.e., leaf shedding during the dry season) is an important adaptation of plants to cope with water limitation, which helps trees adjust to seasonal drought. Deciduousness is also a critical factor determining the timing and duration of carbon fixation rates, and affecting energy, water, and carbon balance. Therefore, quantifying deciduousness is vital to understand important ecosystem processes in tropical dry forests. The aim of this study was to map tree species deciduousness in three types of tropical dry forests along a precipitation gradient in the Yucatan Peninsula using Sentinel-2 imagery. We propose an approach that combines reflectance of visible and near-infrared bands, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), spectral unmixing deciduous fraction, and several texture metrics to estimate the spatial distribution of tree species deciduousness. Deciduousness in the study area was highly variable and decreased along the precipitation gradient, while the spatial variation in deciduousness among sites followed an inverse pattern, ranging from 91.5 to 43.3% and from 3.4 to 9.4% respectively from the northwest to the southeast of the peninsula. Most of the variation in deciduousness was predicted jointly by spectral variables and texture metrics, but texture metrics had a higher exclusive contribution. Moreover, including texture metrics as independent variables increased the variance of deciduousness explained by the models from R² = 0.56 to R² = 0.60 and the root mean square error (RMSE) was reduced from 16.9% to 16.2%. We present the first spatially continuous deciduousness map of the three most important vegetation types in the Yucatan Peninsula using high-resolution imagery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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17 pages, 2894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Gene Differential Expression in Tetraploid Populus Leaves

by Ying Zhang, Yongyu Ren and Xiangyang Kang

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111233 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2043

Abstract

Polyploids exhibit different phenotypes compared to those of diploids in plants, and the important role of polyploids in tree breeding has been widely recognized. The transcriptomes detected by RNA-seq in the Populus triploid by doubling the chromosomes of the female gamete, in the [...] Read more.

Polyploids exhibit different phenotypes compared to those of diploids in plants, and the important role of polyploids in tree breeding has been widely recognized. The transcriptomes detected by RNA-seq in the Populus triploid by doubling the chromosomes of the female gamete, in the triploid by doubling the chromosomes of somatic cells and the diploid with the parent were compared to reveal the patterns of gene expression of tetraploid leaves and their influence on growth. The results showed that the high expression of GATA and PORA in tetraploid leaves was the reason for the higher chlorophyll content in the leaves than in diploid and triploid leaves. The 11-day-old tetraploid leaves began to enter the aging stage. Compared with that in the diploid, GRF was significantly upregulated, while the amylase genes were downregulated. Compared with those in the triploid, 3 STN7 genes that regulate photosynthetic genes and PGSIP genes which are related to starch synthesis, were significantly downregulated in the tetraploid, and the auxin receptor protein TIR1 was also significantly downregulated. In the tetraploid, auxin-regulating genes such as GH3 and AUX/IAA as well as genes involved in the regulation of leaf senescence, SAG genes and SRG genes were significantly up-regulated, resulting in a decrease in the auxin content. In senescent leaves, CHLD, CHLI1, and CHLM in the early stage of chlorophyll synthesis all began to downregulate their expressions, leading to the downregulation of LHC genes and a decrease in their photosynthetic efficiency, which led to the downregulation of carbon fixation-related genes such as SS genes, thus affecting carbon synthesis and fixation. This finally led to the slow growth of tetraploid plants. These data represent the transcriptome characteristics of tetraploid, and they can be used as a resource for further research on polyploids and provide a reference for further understanding of the function of polyploid vegetative growth-related genes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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23 pages, 20084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Mechanical Behavior through Digital Image Correlation and Reliability of Pinus halepensis Mill.

by Alberto Villarino, Jorge López-Rebollo and Natividad Antón

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1232; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111232 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2226

Abstract

The mechanical behavior of test pieces extracted from two specimens of Pinus halepensis Mill., from the same geographical area and close to each other, was examined in this study. Using a methodology based on Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and implemented during compression strength [...] Read more.

The mechanical behavior of test pieces extracted from two specimens of Pinus halepensis Mill., from the same geographical area and close to each other, was examined in this study. Using a methodology based on Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and implemented during compression strength testing, the modulus of elasticity in compression parallel to the grain (MOE_c) was obtained. In addition, the value of compressive strength (MOR_c) was obtained for this type of wood. The research was complemented with a reliability study, determined using the Weibull modulus, from the MOR_c values. A microstructural and behavioral study of the most representative pieces after failure was also conducted to correlate breakage with the behavior of the pieces during the tests monitored by DIC, to link both studies. DIC was shown to be an ideal and low-cost technique for the determination of the studied properties, and obtained average values of MOE_c of 50.72 MPa and MOR_c of 9693 MPa. These values represent fundamental data for design and calculations of wooden structures. A reliability value of between 11 and 12 was obtained using the Weibull modulus for this type of wood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Structure and Properties)

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18 pages, 1761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stable Allometric Trajectories in Picea abies (L.) Karst. Trees along an Elevational Gradient

by Claudio Mura, Christian Bianchi Strømme and Tommaso Anfodillo

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1231; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111231 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2380

Abstract

The effect of temperature on tree phenology and growth has gained particular attention in relation to climate change. While a number of reports indicate that warming can extend the length of the growing season and enhance tree growth rates, it is still debated [...] Read more.

The effect of temperature on tree phenology and growth has gained particular attention in relation to climate change. While a number of reports indicate that warming can extend the length of the growing season and enhance tree growth rates, it is still debated whether temperature also affects biomass partitioning. Addressing the question of whether trees grown at different elevations invest similarly in various organs, we established four sites along an elevational gradient (320 to 595 m a.s.l.) in managed Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karts) stands regenerating after clearcuts in central Norway. There, differences in temperature, bud break, tree growth, and allometric scaling were measured in small spruce trees (up to 3 m height). The results showed that bud break and shoot growth are affected by temperature, as lower sites completed the bud break process 5 days earlier than the higher sites did. There was some evidence indicating that the summer drought of 2018 affected tree growth during the season, and the implications of this are discussed. The allometric scaling coefficients did not change for the crown volume (slope value range 2.66–2.84), crown radius (0.77–0.89), and tree diameter (0.89–0.96) against tree height. A slight difference was found in the scaling coefficients of crown length against tree height (slope value range 1.04–1.12), but this did not affect the general scaling of the crown volume with tree height. Our results showed that different local environmental conditions affect both the growth rate and phenology in Norway spruce trees but, on the contrary, that the biomass partitioning among different parts of the tree remains essentially unchanged. This demonstrates that the allometric approach is an important tool for unraveling true vs. apparent plant plasticity, which in turn is an essential awareness for predicting plant responses to environmental changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Growth and Allocation of Woody Biomass in Forest Trees Based on Environmental Conditions)

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15 pages, 1314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multistage Sample Average Approximation for Harvest Scheduling under Climate Uncertainty

by Martin B. Bagaram and Sándor F. Tóth

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1230; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111230 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2557

Abstract

Forest planners have traditionally used expected growth and yield coefficients to predict future merchantable timber volumes. However, because climate change affects forest growth, the typical forest planning methods using expected value of forest growth can lead to sub-optimal harvest decisions. In this paper, [...] Read more.

Forest planners have traditionally used expected growth and yield coefficients to predict future merchantable timber volumes. However, because climate change affects forest growth, the typical forest planning methods using expected value of forest growth can lead to sub-optimal harvest decisions. In this paper, we propose to formulate the harvest planning with growth uncertainty due to climate change problem as a multistage stochastic optimization problem and use sample average approximation (SAA) as a tool for finding the best set of forest units that should be harvested in the first period even though we have a limited knowledge of what future climate will be. The objective of the harvest planning model is to maximize the expected value of the net present value (NPV) considering the uncertainty in forest growth and thus in revenues from timber harvest. The proposed model was tested on a small forest with 89 stands and the numerical results showed that the approach allows to have superior solutions in terms of net present value and robustness in face of different growth scenarios compared to the approach using the expected growth and yield. The SAA method requires to generate samples from the distribution of the random parameter. Our results suggested that a sampling scheme that focuses on generating high number of samples in distant future stages is favorable compared to having large sample sizes for the near future stages. Finally, we demonstrated that, depending on the level of forest growth change, ignoring this uncertainty can negatively affect forest resources sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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16 pages, 5614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological Characteristics and Transcriptome Comparisons of the Shoot Buds from Flowering and Non-Flowering Pleioblastus pygmaeus

by Wenjing Yao, Chuanzhe Li, Shuyan Lin, Li Ren, Yawen Wan, Li Zhang and Yulong Ding

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1229; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111229 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2616

Abstract

Bamboo plants have a distinctive life cycle with long flowering periodicity. Many species remain in vegetative growth for decades, followed by large-scale flowering and subsequent death. Floral transition is activated while shoot buds are still dormant in bamboo plants. In this study, we [...] Read more.

Bamboo plants have a distinctive life cycle with long flowering periodicity. Many species remain in vegetative growth for decades, followed by large-scale flowering and subsequent death. Floral transition is activated while shoot buds are still dormant in bamboo plants. In this study, we performed morphological characterization and transcriptome analysis of the shoot buds at different growth stages from flowering and non-flowering Pleioblastus pygmaeus. The morphological and anatomical structures of the dormant shoot buds were similar in flowering and non-flowering plants, while there was an obvious difference between the flower buds from flowering plants and the leaf buds from non-flowering plants. The transcriptomes of the dormant shoot buds, germinated shoots, and flower buds from flowering P. pygmaeus, and the dormant shoot buds, germinated shoots, and leaf buds from non-flowering P. pygmaeus were profiled and compared by RNA-Seq. The identified sequences were mostly related to metabolic synthesis, signal transmission, translation, and other functions. A total of 2434 unigenes involved in different flowering pathways were screened from transcriptome comparisons. The differentially expressed unigenes associated with the photoperiod pathway were related to circadian rhythm and plant hormone signal transduction. Moreover, the relative expression levels of a few key flowering-related genes such as CO, FT, FLC, and SOC1 were quantified by qRT-PCR, which was in accordance with RNA-Seq. The study revealed morphological differences in the shoot buds at different growth stages and screened flowering-related genes by transcriptome comparisons of the shoot buds from flowering and non-flowering P. pygmaeus, which will enrich the research on reproductive biology of bamboo plants and shed light on the molecular mechanism of the floral transition in bamboo plants. Full article

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13 pages, 1555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deciphering S-RNase Allele Patterns in Cultivated and Wild Accessions of Italian Pear Germplasm

by Stefania Bennici, Mario Di Guardo, Gaetano Distefano, Giuseppina Las Casas, Filippo Ferlito, Paolo De Franceschi, Luca Dondini, Alessandra Gentile and Stefano La Malfa

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1228; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111228 - 22 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1840

Abstract

The genus Pyrus is characterized by an S-RNase-based gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) system, a mechanism that promotes outbreeding and prevents self-fertilization. While the S-genotype of the most widely known pear cultivars was already described, little is known on the S-allele variability [...] Read more.

The genus Pyrus is characterized by an S-RNase-based gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) system, a mechanism that promotes outbreeding and prevents self-fertilization. While the S-genotype of the most widely known pear cultivars was already described, little is known on the S-allele variability within local accessions. The study was conducted on 86 accessions encompassing most of the local Sicilian varieties selected for their traits of agronomic interest and complemented with some accessions of related wild species (P. pyrifolia Nakai, P. amygdaliformis Vill.) and some national and international cultivars used as references. The employment of consensus and specific primers enabled the detection of 24 S-alleles combined in 48 S-genotypes. Results shed light on the distribution of the S-alleles among accessions, with wild species and international cultivars characterized by a high diversity and local accessions showing a more heterogeneous distribution of the S-alleles, likely reflecting a more complex history of hybridization. The S-allele distribution was largely in agreement with the genetic structure of the studied collection. In particular, the “wild” genetic background was often characterized by the same S-alleles detected in P. pyrifolia and P. amygdaliformis. The analysis of the S-allele distribution provided novel insight into the contribution of the wild and international cultivars to the genetic background of the local Sicilian or national accessions. Furthermore, these results provide information that can be readily employed by breeders for the set-up of novel mating schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic and Phenotypic Variation in Tree Crops Biodiversity)

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13 pages, 2264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Very Fine Root Distribution and Soil Water Content in Pre- and Post-Harvest Areas of Two Coniferous Tree Species

by Moein Farahnak, Keiji Mitsuyasu, Takuo Hishi, Ayumi Katayama, Masaaki Chiwa, Seonghun Jeong, Kyoichi Otsuki, Seyed Mohammad Moein Sadeghi and Atsushi Kume

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1227; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111227 - 22 Nov 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2379

Abstract

Tree root system development alters forest soil properties, and differences in root diameter frequency and root length per soil volume reflect differences in root system function. In this study, the relationship between vertical distribution of very fine root and soil water content was [...] Read more.

Tree root system development alters forest soil properties, and differences in root diameter frequency and root length per soil volume reflect differences in root system function. In this study, the relationship between vertical distribution of very fine root and soil water content was investigated in intact tree and cut tree areas. The vertical distribution of root density with different diameter classes (very fine <0.5 mm and fine 0.5–2.0 mm) and soil water content were examined along a slope with two coniferous tree species, Cryptomeria japonica (L.f.) D. Don and Chamaecyparis obtusa (Siebold et Zucc.) Endl. The root biomass and length density of very fine roots at soil depth of 0–5 cm were higher in the Ch. obtusa intact tree plot than in the Cr. japonica intact plot. Tree cutting caused a reduction in the biomass and length of very fine roots at 0–5 cm soil depth, and an increment in soil water content at 5–30 cm soil depth of the Ch. obtusa cut tree plot one year after cutting. However, very fine root density of the Cr. japonica intact tree plot was quite low and the soil water content in post-harvest areas did not change. The increase in soil water content at 5–30 cm soil depth of the Ch. obtusa cut tree plot could be caused by the decrease in very fine roots at 0–5 cm soil depth. These results suggest that the distribution of soil water content was changed after tree cutting of Ch. obtusa by the channels generated by the decay of very fine roots. It was also shown that differences in root system characteristics among different tree species affect soil water properties after cutting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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22 pages, 7118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Tree Species Identification and Carbon Stock Mapping for Urban Green Planning and Management

by Md Abdul Mueed Choudhury, Ernesto Marcheggiani, Francesca Despini, Sofia Costanzini, Paolo Rossi, Andrea Galli and Sergio Teggi

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1226; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111226 - 21 Nov 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4629

Abstract

Recently, the severe intensification of atmospheric carbon has highlighted the importance of urban tree contributions in atmospheric carbon mitigations in city areas considering sustainable urban green planning and management systems. Explicit and timely information on urban trees and their roles in the atmospheric [...] Read more.

Recently, the severe intensification of atmospheric carbon has highlighted the importance of urban tree contributions in atmospheric carbon mitigations in city areas considering sustainable urban green planning and management systems. Explicit and timely information on urban trees and their roles in the atmospheric Carbon Stock (CS) are essential for policymakers to take immediate actions to ameliorate the effects of deforestation and their worsening outcomes. In this study, a detailed methodology for urban tree CS calibration and mapping was developed for the small urban area of Sassuolo in Italy. For dominant tree species classification, a remote sensing approach was applied, utilizing a high-resolution WV3 image. Five dominant species were identified and classified by applying the Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) approach with an overall accuracy of 78%. The CS calibration was done by utilizing an allometric model based on the field data of tree dendrometry—i.e., Height (H) and Diameter at Breast Height (DBH). For geometric measurements, a terrestrial photogrammetric approach known as Structure-from-Motion (SfM) was utilized. Out of 22 randomly selected sample plots of 100 square meters (10 m × 10 m) each, seven plots were utilized to validate the results of the CS calibration and mapping. In this study, CS mapping was done in an efficient and convenient way, highlighting higher CS and lower CS zones while recognizing the dominant tree species contributions. This study will help city planners initiate CS mapping and predict the possible CS for larger urban regions to ensure a sustainable urban green management system. Full article

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19 pages, 3202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Felling of Hung Up Trees—A Work Safety and Productivity Issue

by Răzvan V. Câmpu, Mihai A. Bratu and Mihai Ciocirlan

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1225; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111225 - 20 Nov 2020

Viewed by 2680

Abstract

Research Highlights: The felling of hung up trees is considered by literature in the field as an activity with a high injury risk. The low work productivity in the felling of hung up trees is wrongly cited by workers in order to justify [...] Read more.

Research Highlights: The felling of hung up trees is considered by literature in the field as an activity with a high injury risk. The low work productivity in the felling of hung up trees is wrongly cited by workers in order to justify various more or less safe work techniques. Background and objectives: The purpose of this paper was to determine work productivity in the felling of hung up trees when this activity has a well-defined structure with stages and specific activities that would allow workers to assess injury risk correctly. In addition, this paper aims to identify the moment when workers should give up the manual felling of hung up trees with a hand winch and start using specialized logging equipment. Materials and methods: The research was conducted in the Eastern Carpathians in a spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) tree stand where clear cutting normally takes place. A single team of workers was used consisting of two chainsaw operators—a main one and a secondary one. This team had a high level of qualification and experience in the operations performed. For the felling of hung up trees, the technique based on rotating the tree around a pivot with a hand winch was used. Time was measured in seconds by using the continuous time study method. Results: The results indicated that work productivity decreases with the number of times the traction line needs to be repositioned. It decreases from 3.477 trees·h⁻¹ (in trees where no repositioning is necessary) to 1.402 trees·h⁻¹ (when the repositioning takes place twice). In trees that needed the repositioning of the traction line, safety rules were broken in the following ways: crossing over the tensioned cable of the traction line, the main chainsaw operator being positioned inside the triangle formed by the hung up trees and the anchorage points of the pulley and the hand winch as well as the operator being positioned very close to the hung up tree stem base while the latter is being tied. That is why, if the repositioning of the traction line is necessary, the question is—would it be better to give up the manual felling of hung up trees and start using specialized equipment? Conclusion: The felling of hung up trees must be regarded and understood, first and foremost, through the perspective of reducing injury risk and protecting workers. Thus, the work productivity of 3.477 trees·h⁻¹ can be considered acceptable for trees that need no extra repositioning of the traction line or when the time consumed does not go over 17 min·tree⁻¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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17 pages, 32195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Timber Forest Product Livelihood-Focused Interventions in Support of Mangrove Restoration: A Call to Action

by Adolphe O. Debrot, Ab Veldhuizen, Sander W. K. van den Burg, Charlotte J. Klapwijk, Md. Nazrul Islam, Md. Iftakharul Alam, Md. Nazmul Ahsan, Moin U. Ahmed, Selim R. Hasan, Ratnawaty Fadilah, Yus R. Noor, Rudhi Pribadi, Sri Rejeki, Ekaningrum Damastuti, Esther Koopmanschap, Stijn Reinhard, Catharien Terwisscha van Scheltinga, Charlotte Verburg and Marnix Poelman

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1224; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111224 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6102

Abstract

Mangroves of tropical and subtropical shores and deltas contribute to ecosystem functioning and human wellbeing in numerous ways but continue to be lost or degraded worldwide at a rapid pace. Overexploitation driven by poverty is often the root cause of mangrove destruction and [...] Read more.

Mangroves of tropical and subtropical shores and deltas contribute to ecosystem functioning and human wellbeing in numerous ways but continue to be lost or degraded worldwide at a rapid pace. Overexploitation driven by poverty is often the root cause of mangrove destruction and degradation. The negative feedback cycle between destruction and poverty can only be broken by justly valuing current or introducing new sustainable livelihood options to foster long-lasting local support for mangroves. The large array of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that mangroves offer have rarely been developed beyond the subsistence level and remain undervalued as “products of the poor”. In light of the global trends towards sustainability and bio-economy, today they represent a major business opportunity for forest communities to produce high value-added end-user products. Even though mangrove NTFPs have been recognized to have high potential toward inclusive development and poverty alleviation and to be highly gender-equal, the development of mangrove NTFPs has continued to attract very little funding or research interest. Several ecological characteristics make commercialization of mangrove NTFPs particularly challenging. Production at economies of scale, including quality standards, as well as marketing and value chain management are all essential in order to develop these products beyond their subsistence role. To be most effective, a systems perspective on NTFP development is needed, whereby product-market development occurs in unison and based on a participative, inclusive and fair development approach. The species/product of choice for value-added product-market development in any specific community or area will depend on several factors. To address many of the typical constraints and maximize the chances of success, we suggest that the use of village or district-level cooperatives may be particularly useful. A better use of the untapped potential of mangroves for local livelihoods may form a most convincing advocate for local protection and restoration of mangrove forests. Therefore, funding agencies, governments and researchers alike are called to invest in mangrove NTFP development as a way to locally incentivize sustainable mangrove protection and restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue (Towards) Sustainable Mangrove Socioecological Systems)

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24 pages, 3442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytophthora austrocedri in Argentina and Co-Inhabiting Phytophthoras: Roles of Anthropogenic and Abiotic Factors in Species Distribution and Diversity

by María Laura Vélez, Ludmila La Manna, Manuela Tarabini, Federico Gomez, Matt Elliott, Pete E. Hedley, Peter Cock and Alina Greslebin

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1223; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111223 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3681

Abstract

This work reports the first survey of Phytophthora diversity in the forests soils of Andean Patagonia. It also discusses the role of anthropogenic impact on Phytophthora distribution inferred from the findings on Phytophthora diversity and on the distribution of Phytophthora austrocedri-diseased forests. [...] Read more.

This work reports the first survey of Phytophthora diversity in the forests soils of Andean Patagonia. It also discusses the role of anthropogenic impact on Phytophthora distribution inferred from the findings on Phytophthora diversity and on the distribution of Phytophthora austrocedri-diseased forests. Invasive pathogen species threatening ecosystems and human activities contribute to their entry and spread. Information on pathogens already established, and early detection of potential invasive ones, are crucial to disease management and prevention. Phytophthora austrocedri causes the most damaging forest disease in Patagonia, affecting the endemic species Austrocedrus chilensis (D. Don) Pic. Sern. and Bizzarri. However, the relationship between anthropogenic impacts and the disease distribution has not been analyzed enough. The aims of this work were: to evaluate Phytophthora diversity in soils of Andean Patagonia using a metabarcoding method, and analyze this information in relation to soil type and land use; to assess the distribution of Austrocedrus disease over time in relation to anthropogenic and abiotic gradients in an area of interest; and to discuss the role of human activities in Phytophthora spread. High throughput Illumina sequencing was used to detect Phytophthora DNA in soil samples. The distribution of Austrocedrus disease over time was assessed by satellite imagery interpretation. Twenty-three Phytophthora species, 12 of which were new records for Argentina, were detected. The most abundant species was P. austrocedri, followed by P. × cambivora, P. ramorum and P. kernoviae. The most frequent was P. × cambivora, followed by P. austrocedri and P. ramorum. Phytophthora richness and abundance, and Austrocedrus disease distribution, were influenced by land use, anthropogenic impact and soil drainage. Results showed several Phytophthoras, including well-known pathogenic species. The threat they could present to Patagonian ecosystems and their relations to human activities are discussed. This study evidenced the need of management measures to control the spread of P. austrocedri and other invasive Phytophthora species in Patagonia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Human Interventions in Spread of Soilborne Forest Pathogens and Methods for Mitigation)

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17 pages, 2170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seed Sourcing Strategies Considering Climate Change Forecasts: A Practical Test in Scots Pine

by Eduardo Notivol, Luis Santos-del-Blanco, Regina Chambel, Jose Climent and Ricardo Alía

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1222; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111222 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2748

Abstract

Research Highlights: We experimentally tested different seed sourcing strategies (local, predictive, climate-predictive, climate-adjusted, composite and admixture) under a climate change high emissions scenario using a Scots pine multi-site provenance test. Background and Objectives: There is an urgent need to conserve genetic resources and [...] Read more.

Research Highlights: We experimentally tested different seed sourcing strategies (local, predictive, climate-predictive, climate-adjusted, composite and admixture) under a climate change high emissions scenario using a Scots pine multi-site provenance test. Background and Objectives: There is an urgent need to conserve genetic resources and to support resilience of conifer species facing expected changes and threats. Seed sourcing strategies have been proposed to maximize the future adaptation and resilience of our forests. However, these proposals are yet to be tested, especially in long-lived organisms as forest trees, due to methodological constraints. In addition, some methods rely on the transfer of material from populations matching the future conditions of the sites. However, at the rear edge of the species, some specific problems (high fragmentation, high genetic differentiation, role of genetic drift) challenge the theoretical expectations of some of these methods. Materials and Methods: We used a Scots pine multi-site provenance test, consisting of seventeen provenances covering the distribution range of the species in Spain tested in five representative sites. We measured height, diameter and survival at 5, 10 and 15 years after planting. We simulated populations of 50 trees by bootstrapping material of the provenance test after removing the intra-site environmental effects, simulating different seed sourcing strategies. Results: We found that local and predictive methods behaved better than methods based on the selection of future climate-matching strategies (predictive-climate and climate-adjusted) and those combining several seed sources (composite and admixture seed sourcing strategies). Conclusions: Despite the theoretical expectations, for Scots pine, a forest tree species at its rear edge of its distribution, seed-sourcing methods based on climate matching or a combination of seed sources do not perform better than traditional local or predictive methods or they are not feasible because of the lack of future climate-matching populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Resources and Adaptive Management of Conifers in a Changing World)

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21 pages, 5086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Elastic Properties of Beech Plywood by Analytical, Experimental and Numerical Methods

by Miran Merhar

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1221; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111221 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2562

Abstract

This research article examines the application of various methods to determine the effective elastic properties of beech veneer-wood composites. Using laminate theory, the theoretically calculated effective values of the in-plane and out-of-plane modulus of elasticity as well as shear modulus are compared with [...] Read more.

This research article examines the application of various methods to determine the effective elastic properties of beech veneer-wood composites. Using laminate theory, the theoretically calculated effective values of the in-plane and out-of-plane modulus of elasticity as well as shear modulus are compared with the values determined from the natural frequencies of flexural, torsional and longitudinal vibrations of samples having different orientations and numbers of composite layers. The samples are also modelled using the finite element method, and their natural frequencies are calculated by the modal analysis. Research has shown that the laminate theory, which is well established and applied in the world of synthetic composites, can also be applied to beech plywood composites, where the theoretically calculated effective values can be up to 15% higher. Similarly, due to the higher calculated effective elastic properties, higher natural frequencies of flexural, torsional and longitudinal vibrations are also calculated by the finite element method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Performance of Wood and Wood-Based Materials)

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16 pages, 2204 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mitigation of Deer Herbivory in Temperate Hardwood Forest Regeneration: A Meta-Analysis of Research Literature

by Caleb H. Redick and Douglass F. Jacobs

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1220; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111220 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4995

Abstract

Ungulate herbivory poses global challenges to forest regeneration. Deer, in combination with other biotic and abiotic factors, threaten to shift forest composition away from palatable hardwoods, such as oaks (Quercus spp.), and cause regeneration failure in some cases. Many studies have assessed [...] Read more.

Ungulate herbivory poses global challenges to forest regeneration. Deer, in combination with other biotic and abiotic factors, threaten to shift forest composition away from palatable hardwoods, such as oaks (Quercus spp.), and cause regeneration failure in some cases. Many studies have assessed methods to reduce or manage browse, but comprehensive analyses of the relative effectiveness of these techniques among published experiments are lacking. We synthesized the literature describing the results of methods to reduce deer browsing impacts, and assessed the effectiveness of deer browse management methods in controlling damage to hardwood forest regeneration. Specifically, we systematically analyzed results from 99 studies that used repellents, physical barriers, lethal population control, timber harvests, facilitation by neighboring plants, or fertilizer to affect browse, survival, or height growth of hardwood seedlings. Across studies, browse was reduced (mean effect size and confidence intervals) with the following: Fencing −3.17 (CI: −4.00–−1.31), shelters −1.28 (CI: −2.02–−0.67), cages −1.48 (CI: −3.14–−0.62), facilitation from neighboring plants −0.58 (CI: −1.11–−0.13), repellents −0.45 (CI: −0.56–−0.21), hunting −0.99 (CI: −1.51–−0.26). These methods each had positive effects on seedling height growth (except for repellents), and cages, timber harvests, fences, and mesh sleeves had positive effects on survival. Logging slash had no effect on browse incidence (−0.05, CI: −0.97–0.19). Fertilizer applied during seedling establishment increased browse (0.13, CI: 0.11–0.21), and did not affect height growth. We conclude that fences or other physical barriers best control for the effects of deer, but facilitation by surrounding vegetation, logging slash, hunting, habitat management through timber harvest, and certain repellents may also be moderately effective. Discrepancies between browse effectiveness and relative costs suggest that economic analyses should be developed to help to guide prescriptions for management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silviculture for Restoration and Regeneration)

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35 pages, 8860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing the Joint Effect of Forest Management and Wildfires on Living Biomass and Carbon Stocks in Spanish Forests

by Patricia Adame, Isabel Cañellas, Daniel Moreno-Fernández, Tuula Packalen, Laura Hernández and Iciar Alberdi

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1219; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111219 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2350

Abstract

Research Highlights: This is the first study that has considered forest management and wildfires in the balance of living biomass and carbon stored in Mediterranean forests. Background and Objectives: The Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement request countries to estimate and report [...] Read more.

Research Highlights: This is the first study that has considered forest management and wildfires in the balance of living biomass and carbon stored in Mediterranean forests. Background and Objectives: The Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement request countries to estimate and report carbon emissions and removals from the forest in a transparent and reliable way. The aim of this study is to forecast the carbon stored in the living biomass of Spanish forests for the period 2000–2050 under two forest management alternatives and three forest wildfires scenarios. Materials and Methods: To produce these estimates, we rely on data from the Spanish National Forest Inventory (SNFI) and we use the European Forestry Dynamics Model (EFDM). SNFI plots were classified according to five static (forest type, known land-use restrictions, ownership, stand structure and bioclimatic region) and two dynamic factors (quadratic mean diameter and total volume). The results were validated using data from the latest SNFI cycle (20-year simulation). Results: The increase in wildfire occurrence will lead to a decrease in biomass/carbon between 2000 and 2050 of up to 22.7% in the medium–low greenhouse gas emissions scenario (B2 scenario) and of up to 32.8% in the medium–high greenhouse gas emissions scenario (A2 scenario). Schoolbook allocation management could buffer up to 3% of wildfire carbon loss. The most stable forest type under both wildfire scenarios are Dehesas. As regards bioregions, the Macaronesian area is the most affected and the Alpine region, the least affected. Our validation test revealed a total volume underestimation of 2.2% in 20 years. Conclusions: Forest wildfire scenarios provide more realistic simulations in Mediterranean forests. The results show the potential benefit of forest management, with slightly better results in schoolbook forest management compared to business-as-usual forest management. The EFDM harmonized approach simulates the capacity of forests to store carbon under different scenarios at national scale in Spain, providing important information for optimal decision-making on forest-related policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Resources Assessments: Mensuration, Inventory and Planning)

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14 pages, 1996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Changes of Softwood Floodplain Forests—Did the Disappearance of Wet Vegetation Accelerate the Invasion Process?

by Katarína Mikulová, Ivan Jarolímek, Jozef Šibík, Tomáš Bacigál and Mária Šibíková

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1218; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111218 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3279

Abstract

Objectives: We followed the long-term changes of softwood floodplain forests strongly altered by water regime changes and examine the behaviour of neophytes in this environment. Here we ask: (1) How did the composition of neophyte and native species change? (2) How did the [...] Read more.

Objectives: We followed the long-term changes of softwood floodplain forests strongly altered by water regime changes and examine the behaviour of neophytes in this environment. Here we ask: (1) How did the composition of neophyte and native species change? (2) How did the presence of species that prefer wetter conditions change? (3) What traditionally distinguished type of softwood floodplain forests (a wetter one or a more mesophilous one) do neophytes prefer? (4) What environmental factors affect the native species richness and the occurrence and cover of neophytes? Materials and Methods: Historical and recent phytosociological relevés of the association Salicetum albae of the Slovak part of the inland delta of the Danube River were used (177 plots together). For each plot, the number and cover of neophytes and number of native species were measured, and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index, the stand structure (cover of tree, shrub and herb layer) and the mean of Ellenberg indicator values were calculated and compared among time periods. Temporal trends of the soil moisture characterized by indicator values calculated for each plot were determined using a Linear Model. The synoptic table of traditional vegetation types was done to show preferences of neophytes for particular softwood forest types. The effect of site conditions on native species richness and occurrence of neophytes was determined using the Generalized Linear Model. Results: The relative number and cover of neophyte species increased and the absolute number of native species decreased over time; the vegetation of the area has changed from variable hygrophilous and mesophilous to homogenised mesophilous; most non-native species prefer the mesophilous vegetation of the floodplain forests; the wetter parts of the floodplain more successfully resisted invasions. Conclusions: The vegetation of the researched area has considerably changed over time to become less diverse and less hygrophilous, and has more invasive species. To preserve floodplain forests, natural hydrological and connectivity patterns should be adequately protected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Forest Management and Climate Change on Forest Vegetation)

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19 pages, 2773 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of Suitable Reference Genes Based on Transcriptomic Data in Ginkgo biloba under Different Experimental Conditions

by Tingting Zhou, Xiaoming Yang, Fangfang Fu, Guibin Wang and Fuliang Cao

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1217; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111217 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1853

Abstract

Ginkgo biloba, a deciduous tree species in the Ginkgo family, has a long history of cultivation in China and is widely used in garden landscapes, medicine, food, and health products. However, few reports have focused on the systematic selection of optimal reference [...] Read more.

Ginkgo biloba, a deciduous tree species in the Ginkgo family, has a long history of cultivation in China and is widely used in garden landscapes, medicine, food, and health products. However, few reports have focused on the systematic selection of optimal reference genes based on transcriptomic data in G. biloba. The purpose of our research was to select an internal reference gene suitable for different experimental conditions from thirteen candidate reference genes by the delta cycle threshold (ΔCt) method, geNorm, BestKeeper, NormFinder, and RefFinder programs. The reference genes were used for gene expression analyses of Ginkgo biloba. These results showed that elongation factor 1(EF1) and ubiquitin (UBI) were the best choices for samples of different ginkgo genotypes. The expression of UBI and HAS28 presented the most stable at different developmental stages of ginkgo, and EIF3I and RPII were considered as suitable reference genes in different tissues of ginkgo. For methyl jasmonate (MeJA) treatment, ACA and ACT were identified as the optimal reference genes. For cold stress treatment, RPII and EIF4E were chosen for the gene expression normalizations. HAS28 and GAPDH presented the most stable expression for the heat treatment. To validate the above results, a chalcone synthase gene (GbCHS) in ginkgo was amplified by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Our results provide different suitable reference genes for further gene expression studies in ginkgo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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17 pages, 2934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Crown Ratio and Height to Crown Base Models for Masson Pine in Southern China

by Yao Li, Wei Wang, Weisheng Zeng, Jianjun Wang and Jinghui Meng

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1216; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111216 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2690

Abstract

Crown ratio (CR) and height to crown base (HCB) are important crown characteristics influencing the behavior of forest canopy fires. However, the labor-intensive and costly measurement of CR and HCB have hindered their wide application to forest fire management. Here, we use 301 [...] Read more.

Crown ratio (CR) and height to crown base (HCB) are important crown characteristics influencing the behavior of forest canopy fires. However, the labor-intensive and costly measurement of CR and HCB have hindered their wide application to forest fire management. Here, we use 301 sample trees collected in 11 provinces in China to produce predictive models of CR and HCB for Masson pine forests (Pinus massoniana Lamb.), which are vulnerable to forest canopy fires. We first identified the best basic model that used only diameter at breast height (DBH) and height (H) as independent variables to predict CR and HCB, respectively, from 11 of the most used potential candidate models. Second, we introduced other covariates into the best basic model of CR and HCB and developed the final CR and HCB predictive models after evaluating the model performance of different combinations of covariates. The results showed that the Richards form of the candidate models performed best in predicting CR and HCB. The final CR model included DBH, H, DBH^0.5 and height-to-diameter ratio (HDR), while the final HCB model was the best basic model (i.e., it did not contain any other covariates). We hope that our CR and HCB predictive models contribute to the forest crown fire management of Masson pine forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modelling and Managing the Dynamics of Pine Forests)

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23 pages, 40808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Neighborhood Effect and Supervised Machine Learning Techniques to Model and Simulate Forest Insect Outbreaks in British Columbia, Canada

by Saeed Harati, Liliana Perez and Roberto Molowny-Horas

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111215 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2494

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Modelling and simulation of forest land cover change due to epidemic insect outbreaks are powerful tools that can be used in planning and preparing strategies for forest management. In this study, we propose an integrative approach to model land cover [...] Read more.

Background and Objectives: Modelling and simulation of forest land cover change due to epidemic insect outbreaks are powerful tools that can be used in planning and preparing strategies for forest management. In this study, we propose an integrative approach to model land cover changes at a provincial level, using as a study case the simulation of the spatiotemporal dynamics of mountain pine beetle (MPB) infestation over the lodgepole pine forest of British Columbia (BC), Canada. This paper aims to simulate land cover change by applying supervised machine learning techniques to maps of MPB-driven deforestation. Materials and Methods: We used a 16-year series (1999–2014) of spatial information on annual mortality of pine trees due to MPB attacks, provided by the BC Ministry of Forests. We used elevation, aspect, slope, ruggedness, and weighted neighborhood of infestation as predictors. We implemented (a) generalized linear regression (GLM), and (b) random forest (RF) algorithms to simulate forestland cover changes due to MPB between 2005 and 2014. To optimize the ability of our models to predict MPB infestation in 2020, a cross-validation procedure was implemented. Results: Simulating infestations from 2008 to 2014, RF algorithms produced less error than GLM. Our simulations for the year 2020 confirmed the predictions from the BC Ministry of Forest by forecasting a slower rate of spread in future MPB infestations in the province. Conclusions: Integrating neighborhood effects as variables in model calibration allows spatiotemporal complexities to be simulated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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15 pages, 994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of COVID-19 on the Management of European Protected Areas and Policy Implications

by James McGinlay, Vassilis Gkoumas, Jens Holtvoeth, Ruymán Federico Armas Fuertes, Elena Bazhenova, Alessandro Benzoni, Kerstin Botsch, Carmen Cabrera Martel, Cati Carrillo Sánchez, Isabel Cervera, Guillermo Chaminade, Juliana Doerstel, Concepción J. Fagundo García, Angela Jones, Michael Lammertz, Kaja Lotman, Majda Odar, Teresa Pastor, Carol Ritchie, Stefano Santi, Mojca Smolej, Francisco Soriano Rico, Holly Waterman, Tomasz Zwijacz-Kozica, Andreas Kontoleon, Panayiotis G. Dimitrakopoulos and Nikoleta Jones Show full author list Hide full author list

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1214; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111214 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 109 | Viewed by 11774

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic led to many European countries imposing lockdown measures and limiting people’s movement during spring 2020. During the summer 2020, these strict lockdown measures were gradually lifted while in autumn 2020, local restrictions started to be re-introduced as a second wave [...] Read more.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to many European countries imposing lockdown measures and limiting people’s movement during spring 2020. During the summer 2020, these strict lockdown measures were gradually lifted while in autumn 2020, local restrictions started to be re-introduced as a second wave emerged. After initial restrictions on visitors accessing many Nature Protected Areas (PAs) in Europe, management authorities have had to introduce measures so that all users can safely visit these protected landscapes. In this paper, we examine the challenges that emerged due to COVID-19 for PAs and their deeper causes. By considering the impact on and response of 14 popular European National and Nature Parks, we propose tentative longer-term solutions going beyond the current short-term measures that have been implemented. The most important challenges identified in our study were overcrowding, a new profile of visitors, problematic behavior, and conflicts between different user groups. A number of new measures have been introduced to tackle these challenges including information campaigns, traffic management, and establishing one-way systems on trail paths. However, measures to safeguard public health are often in conflict with other PA management measures aiming to minimize disturbance of wildlife and ecosystems. We highlight three areas in which management of PAs can learn from the experience of this pandemic: managing visitor numbers in order to avoid overcrowding through careful spatial planning, introducing educational campaigns, particularly targeting a new profile of visitors, and promoting sustainable tourism models, which do not rely on large visitor numbers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Areas in Forest Conservation: Challenges and Opportunities)

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14 pages, 6974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prioritizing Invasive Forest Plant Management Using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis in Minnesota, USA

by Jason R. Reinhardt, Matthew B. Russell and William F. Lazarus

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1213; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111213 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2257

Abstract

Invasive plants are a concern in many forest ecosystems because they can impact tree regeneration and recruitment, alter hydrology, and degrade wildlife habitats. Management efforts are generally planned locally, based on the severity of the infestation, species involved, and characteristics of the forest [...] Read more.

Invasive plants are a concern in many forest ecosystems because they can impact tree regeneration and recruitment, alter hydrology, and degrade wildlife habitats. Management efforts are generally planned locally, based on the severity of the infestation, species involved, and characteristics of the forest stand. A broad, landscape-level context can provide additional information and help with planning efforts but is often lacking. In this study, we estimated landscape-level priorities for the management of five invasive forest plants in Minnesota. We used a multi-criteria decision analysis approach to integrate plant distribution models and data with geographic information about areas of conservation concern, recreational areas, and the economic benefits of treatment. The results varied across Ecological Classification System provinces and Minnesota native plant community classes. Four of the five invasive plants considered demonstrated an abundance of Medium- and High-priority areas for management in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest province of Minnesota. The average priority was generally lower in the Prairie Parklands and Tallgrass Aspen Parklands provinces, with Rhamnus cathartica as the only species demonstrating Medium or higher priorities in the latter. The mean priorities were Medium or higher for R. cathartica and Frangula alnus in mesic hardwood community types across the state, in addition to several fire-dependent systems. The priority distribution was most limited for Rosa multiflora, where the only Medium or higher priority results were found in a mesic hardwood system in the southeastern corner of the state. The results presented here highlight broad-scale patterns that can provide a synoptic overview of invasive plant priorities at the landscape scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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18 pages, 4880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Short-Term Impact of Different Silvicultural Thinnings on Soil Nematode and Microarthropod Biodiversity in Artificial Black Pine Stands

by Silvia Landi, Giada d’Errico, Francesco Binazzi, Umberto Di Salvatore, Lorenzo Gardin, Maurizio Marchi, Giuseppe Mazza, Pio Federico Roversi, Stefania Simoncini, Giulia Torrini and Paolo Cantiani

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1212; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111212 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2021

Abstract

Soil invertebrates represent almost a quarter of the total diversity of living organisms and their activity affects the entire soil ecological process. The choice of adequate thinning systems may differently affect soil nematode and microarthropod biodiversity in artificial black pinewoods. In this work, [...] Read more.

Soil invertebrates represent almost a quarter of the total diversity of living organisms and their activity affects the entire soil ecological process. The choice of adequate thinning systems may differently affect soil nematode and microarthropod biodiversity in artificial black pinewoods. In this work, the results of the impact of different thinnings on the structure of nematode and microarthropod communities was reported. In a short-term experiment, thinning from below and selective thinning were compared to unmanaged stands to provide indications at the regional scale in central Italy. Soil nematode and microarthropod biodiversity was explored by examining community structure, assessing biodiversity. The interaction between environmental variables (crown volume, Photosynthetically Active Radiation, soil texture, soil temperature, and moisture) with taxa abundance of nematodes and microarthropods were also reported. The results indicated that the effects of thinning practices were temporary and varied between years. Soil nematode community shifted during the first and third years of thinning managements only in the Pratomagno site, while soil microarthropod community shifted in both sites only in the second year. The total nematode abundance was minimally affected by thinning practices, while the nematode community composition showed a decrease of omnivores and predators in the first years. Soil indicators showed inconsistent results. In microarthropods, mites and collembola were the least affected by thinning in terms of abundance and species biodiversity, while eu-edaphic taxa of Chilopoda, Diplopoda, and Pauropoda were not influenced by thinning, hemi-edaphic and epi-edaphic taxa of Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Tysanoptera, and Hemiptera were negatively affected. Soil indicators such as Shannon-Weiner and Simpson indices and soil biological quality (QBS-ar) improved in thinning from below in both sites. Soil temperature and moisture were the main driving factors in affecting soil nematode and microarthropods communities. Thinning from below probably allowed a more rapid recovery than selective thinning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Innovative Silvicultural Treatments in Pine Forests)

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29 pages, 3013 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Prospect of Physiological Events Associated with the Micropropagation of Eucalyptus sp.

by Rambod Abiri, Narges Atabaki, Hazandy Abdul-Hamid, Ruzana Sanusi, Nor Aini Ab Shukor, Noor Azmi Shaharuddin, Siti Aqlima Ahmad and Sonia Malik

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111211 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3996

Abstract

Micropropagation is a reliable technique in biotechnology and genetic engineering domain, which has been widely applied for rapid mass propagation of plants in vitro condition. Through micropropagation techniques, reproduction of plants can be attained from different explants using organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis. Over [...] Read more.

Micropropagation is a reliable technique in biotechnology and genetic engineering domain, which has been widely applied for rapid mass propagation of plants in vitro condition. Through micropropagation techniques, reproduction of plants can be attained from different explants using organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis. Over the decades, micropropagation techniques have offered tremendous potential for forest tree improvement. Eucalyptus is a woody plant species recalcitrant to in vitro culture. In general, the micropropagation of Eucalyptus culture processes and the genotype, environment surroundings, and age of explants in culture media is frequently linked with the occurrence of micropropagation variation. In the current review paper, an update of the most important physiological and molecular phenomena aspects of Eucalyptus micropropagation was linked to the most profound information. To achieve the mentioned target, the effect of plant growth regulators (PGRs), nutrients, other adjuvant and environmental features, as well as genetic interaction with morpho- and physiological mechanisms was studied from the induction to plant acclimatisation. On the other hand, important mechanisms behind the organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis of Eucalyptus are discussed. The information of current review paper will help researchers in choosing the optimum condition based on the scenario behind the tissue culture technique of Eucalyptus. However, more studies are required to identify and overcome some of the crucial bottlenecks in this economically important forest species to establish efficient micropropagation protocol at the industrial level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Tissue Culture in Plant Reproduction)

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15 pages, 2235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological and Structural Aspects of In Vitro Somatic Embryogenesis in Abies alba Mill

by Terezia Salaj, Katarina Klubicová, Bart Panis, Rony Swennen and Jan Salaj

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1210; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111210 - 17 Nov 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2719

Abstract

Initiation of somatic embryogenesis from immature zygotic embryos, long-term maintenance of embryogenic tissue in vitro or by cryopreservation, as well as maturation, of somatic embryos of Abies alba Mill. are reported in this study. For the initiation of embryogenic tissues, a DCR medium [...] Read more.

Initiation of somatic embryogenesis from immature zygotic embryos, long-term maintenance of embryogenic tissue in vitro or by cryopreservation, as well as maturation, of somatic embryos of Abies alba Mill. are reported in this study. For the initiation of embryogenic tissues, a DCR medium containing different types of cytokinins (1 mg.L⁻¹) were tested. During three consecutive years, 61 cell lines were initiated out of 1308 explants, with initiation frequencies ranging between 0.83 and 13.33%. The type of cytokinin had no profound effect on the initiation frequency within one given year. Microscopic observations revealed presence of bipolar somatic embryos in all initiated embryogenic tissues. Besides the typical bipolar somatic embryos, huge polyembryonal complexes, as well as “twin” embryos, were observed. Maturation of somatic embryos occurred on a DCR medium supplemented by abscisic acid (10 mg.L⁻¹), polyethylene glycol (PEG-4000, 7.5%) and 3% maltose. The maturation capacity was cell-line dependent. All of the four tested cell lines produced cotyledonary somatic embryos, though at different quantities, of 16 to 252 per g of fresh weight. After germination, seedlings developed, but their further growth soon stopped after the formation of a resting bud. Altogether, seven cell lines were cryopreserved, using the slow-freezing technique. After rewarming, all tested cell lines showed regrowth rates between 81.8 and 100%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Tissue Culture in Plant Reproduction)

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10 pages, 2664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of Species Origin Traceability by Hydrogen Stable Isotopes: Sample Case of Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

by Zeshi Qin and Juan Shi

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1209; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111209 - 17 Nov 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1713

Abstract

Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) is an international quarantine pest with many hosts, widely distributed in Asia, Europe, and America. L. dispar is distributed mainly in the Eastern Monsoon Region of China. Currently, the most effective means of prevention and control of this [...] Read more.

Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) is an international quarantine pest with many hosts, widely distributed in Asia, Europe, and America. L. dispar is distributed mainly in the Eastern Monsoon Region of China. Currently, the most effective means of prevention and control of this pest are timely monitoring and early warning. However, their implementation is usually hampered by the lack of feasible methods and tools for fast tracking and traceability. Stable isotope technology can be used for material traceability, but in China, it is rarely employed for insect traceability. Therefore, using L. dispar as an example, we conducted a case study to explore the feasibility of using hydrogen stable isotopes for pest-source traceability. The grid data of hydrogen stable isotopes of global precipitation were downloaded from the Online Isotopes in Precipitation Calculator (OIPC; Bowen and Revenaugh, 2003, Bowen, 2017), and then, a zoning map of hydrogen stable isotopes of precipitation in mainland China was constructed using ArcGIS 10.4.1 (Esri, Redlands, CA, USA). The wings of 284 L. dispar adults captured in five regions in China were selected as experimental samples. A Finnigan Delta V Advantage Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts, U.S.) and a Flash 2000 HT Elemental Analyzer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts, U.S.) were used to measure the hydrogen stable isotope (δ²H) value of the samples. Then, using the recorded local precipitation hydrogen stable isotope of the sampling site, we performed a data simulation using R software (v.3.2.1; R Development Core Team, Vienna, Austria). A linear regression equation was next established: y = 1.186x − 13.247, where x represents the hydrogen stable isotope ratio of precipitation and y denotes the hydrogen stable isotope ratio of L. dispar. The t-test, F-test, and R² test results confirmed the high significance and matching with the simulation data used in the model. To further verify the accuracy of the model, L. dispar samples from Chengdu in Sichuan Province were collected for model back-testing. The verification results also evidenced that the actual source of the L. dispar sample can be obtained based on the method applied and the model developed in this paper. Full article

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17 pages, 14796 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Resilient Modulus to Determine the Subgrade Suitability for Forest Road Construction

by Lenka Ševelová, Aleš Florian and Petr Hrůza

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111208 - 16 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1969

Abstract

Forest roads are often constructed in environments with low bearing capacity of the subgrade. The subgrade then has an effect on their service life and damage. According to the methodology of the American Association of State Higway and Transportation Officiales AASHTO, the design [...] Read more.

Forest roads are often constructed in environments with low bearing capacity of the subgrade. The subgrade then has an effect on their service life and damage. According to the methodology of the American Association of State Higway and Transportation Officiales AASHTO, the design of pavement is divided into three levels according to the intensity of the traffic load. For pavements with the highest load intensity, preparing the resilient modulus from a cyclic triaxial test is required. For other traffic load classes, including forest roads, the methodology allows the use of the estimate of resilient modulus value determined from other tests. In the laboratory at the Faculty of Forestry, Mendel University of Brno, the method from the Delft University 2009 was tested and subsequently modified, using a standard CBR machine for repeated loading. A total of 276 samples from various types of forest road subgrade from the Czech Republic were tested by the method of repeated loading on the CBR machine, from which the values of the Resilient Modulus were newly labelled M_r,CBR. The results of the statistical analysis showed a large variability of M_r,CBR values and wide intervals of its occurrence for individual types of subgrade. The variability was subjected to analysis and the influence of basic geotechnical parameters on the values of M_r,CBR was analyzed. A fundamental correlation was found between the value of M_r,CBR and the value of the plunger stress, which reached values exceeding the bearing capacity of the soil types using the Delft University method. It is necessary to limit the plunger stress during cyclic loading up to the failure limit or even better to the expected traffic load. The modified procedure results show a more consistent behavior of the modulus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Properties, Quality Monitoring and Restoration in Forest Ecosystems)

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16 pages, 2911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Allometric Equations for Shrub and Short-Stature Tree Aboveground Biomass within Boreal Ecosystems of Northwestern Canada

by Linda Flade, Christopher Hopkinson and Laura Chasmer

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1207; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111207 - 16 Nov 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4170

Abstract

Aboveground biomass (AGB) of short-stature shrubs and trees contain a substantial part of the total carbon pool within boreal ecosystems. These ecosystems, however, are changing rapidly due to climate-mediated atmospheric changes, with overall observed decline in woody plant AGB in boreal northwestern Canada. [...] Read more.

Aboveground biomass (AGB) of short-stature shrubs and trees contain a substantial part of the total carbon pool within boreal ecosystems. These ecosystems, however, are changing rapidly due to climate-mediated atmospheric changes, with overall observed decline in woody plant AGB in boreal northwestern Canada. Allometric equations provide a means to quantify woody plant AGB and are useful to understand aboveground carbon stocks as well as changes through time in unmanaged boreal ecosystems. In this paper, we provide allometric equations, regression coefficients, and error statistics to quantify total AGB of shrubs and short-stature trees. We provide species- and genus-specific as well as multispecies allometric models for shrub and tree species commonly found in northwestern boreal forest and peatland ecosystems. We found that the three-dimensional field variable (volume) provided the most accurate prediction of shrub multispecies AGB (R² = 0.79, p < 0.001), as opposed to the commonly used one-dimensional variable (basal diameter) measured on the longest and thickest stem (R² = 0.23, p < 0.001). Short-stature tree AGB was most accurately predicted by stem diameter measured at 0.3 m along the stem length (R² = 0.99, p < 0.001) rather than stem length (R² = 0.29, p < 0.001). Via the two-dimensional variable cross-sectional area, small-stature shrub AGB was combined with small-stature tree AGB within one single allometric model (R² = 0.78, p < 0.001). The AGB models provided in this paper will improve our understanding of shrub and tree AGB within rapidly changing boreal environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Biomass and Carbon Estimation)

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16 pages, 3539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis Reveals the Metabolic Characteristics of Astringent Seeds of Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb) Hook) during Astringent Compounds Accumulation Stages

by Yu Chen, Yihan Wu, Chao Wu and Sizu Lin

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1206; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111206 - 16 Nov 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1910

Abstract

Research Highlights: The present study firstly reported the metabolic dynamics of astringent seed, a special type of abortion in Chinese fir, during the astringent material stages. The results provide a reference for further study on its occurrence mechanism and enrich the understanding of [...] Read more.

Research Highlights: The present study firstly reported the metabolic dynamics of astringent seed, a special type of abortion in Chinese fir, during the astringent material stages. The results provide a reference for further study on its occurrence mechanism and enrich the understanding of the plant seed developmental physiology. Background and Objectives: Astringent seed is a type of abortive phenomenon in Chinese fir, which significantly reduces the yield and quality of elite seeds for its high-incidence and indistinguishableness in seed orchard. Embryo defects can be observed in the astringent seed, accompanied with rapid accumulation of secondary metabolites. However, types of those metabolites in astringent seed, dynamic changes during seed growth process, and different accumulative characteristics compared to germinable seed have not been explained. Materials and Methods: Astringent and germinable seed samples were collected at four stages aim to determine the differences in their metabolic patterns. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) detection was used to generate the raw metabolic peaks. Bioinformatics statistical strategies were used to further investigation. Results: A total of 421 metabolites were screened and 112 metabolites were identified as the different expressive metabolites including 68 up-regulated and 44 down-regulated metabolites. Those different expressive metabolites were grouped into 26 classes. Flavone, flavonol, and amino acid derivatives compounds were the most varied metabolites. Four subcategories which could represent the diverse basic expressive patterns or accumulative activity in different sample groups were further clustered. Moreover, pathways related to biosynthesis/degradation/metabolism of flavonoid-like compounds, amino acid/nucleotides derivatives, zeatin, and IAA were clearly enriched. Conclusions: Significant metabolic differences were observed across and between astringent and germinable seeds 105 d after pollination. Massive accumulation of flavonoids-like compounds, significant reduction of amino acids/nucleotides and their derivatives, and the abnormal expression of phytohormones, lipids and other secondary metabolites are the main metabolic characteristics in astringent seeds. Full article

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18 pages, 3581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Litter Manipulations have Strong Impact on Soil Nitrogen Dynamics in Larix gmelinii Forest of Northeast China

by Ruihan Xiao, Xiuling Man, Beixing Duan and Tijiu Cai

Forests 2020, 11(11), 1205; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11111205 - 16 Nov 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

Changes in above-ground litterfall can influence below-ground biogeochemical processes in forests, which substantially impacts soil nitrogen (N) and nutrient cycling. However, how these soil processes respond to the litter manipulation is complex and poorly understood, especially in the N-limiting boreal forest. We aimed [...] Read more.

Changes in above-ground litterfall can influence below-ground biogeochemical processes in forests, which substantially impacts soil nitrogen (N) and nutrient cycling. However, how these soil processes respond to the litter manipulation is complex and poorly understood, especially in the N-limiting boreal forest. We aimed to examine how soil N dynamics respond to litter manipulations in a boreal larch forest. A litter manipulation experiment including control, litter exclusion, and litter addition was performed in the Larix gmelinii forest on the north of the Daxing’an Mountains in China. Monthly soil inorganic N, microbial biomass and the rate of net N mineralization in both 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm layers, and N₂O flux were analyzed from May 2018 to October 2018. In 0–20 cm soil layer the average soil inorganic N contents, microbial biomass N (MBN) contents, the rate of net N mineralization (Rmin), and the soil N₂O emission in the litter addition plot were approximately 40.58%, 54.16%, 128.57%, and 38.52% greater, respectively than those in the control. While litter exclusion reduced those indexes about 29.04%, 19.84%, 80.98%, and 31.45%, respectively. Compared with the dynamics of the 10–20 cm soil layer, the N dynamics in 0–10 cm soil were more sensitive to litter manipulation. Rmin and N₂O emissions were significantly correlated with MBN in most cases. Our results highlight the short-term effects of litter manipulations on soil N dynamics, which suggests that the influence of litter on soil N process should be considered in the future defoliation management of the boreal larch forest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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