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Forests
Volume 11
Issue 10
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Forests, Volume 11, Issue 10 (October 2020) – 97 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Concern about our changing climate is focusing attention on how silvicultural treatments can be used to regenerate or restore forested landscapes. For many forest ecosystems, fire is a primary disturbance agent that significantly drives species diversity and other ecosystem functions, especially nutrient dynamics. In this study, we leveraged a 30-year-old forest management-driven experiment that incorporated harvesting and prescribed fire, further affected by wildfire, to explore the recovery of woody species composition, regeneration of charismatic forest tree species Larix occidentalis, and vegetation and soil carbon and nitrogen pools. Our results help to inform land managers of the repercussions of forest management techniques. View this paper
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20 pages, 2248 KiB  
Article
Discovering Douglas-Fir Woodlands in the Historical Forests of Umatilla National Forest, Eastern Oregon and Washington
by Brice B. Hanberry, Donald C. Justice and David C. Powell
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101122 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2724
Abstract
We discovered unique Douglas-fir open woodlands in the Umatilla National Forest using historical surveys. Historical ponderosa pine forests of the western United States are transitioning to denser forests comprised of a greater proportion of fire-sensitive species, including true firs. We used historical (1879 [...] Read more.
We discovered unique Douglas-fir open woodlands in the Umatilla National Forest using historical surveys. Historical ponderosa pine forests of the western United States are transitioning to denser forests comprised of a greater proportion of fire-sensitive species, including true firs. We used historical (1879 to 1887) surveys to quantify the composition and structure of the Umatilla National Forest in eastern Oregon and Washington and provided contemporary forest information for comparison. We also modeled fir and pine distributions using environmental predictors and the random forests and extreme gradient boosting classifiers. Historically, ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir comprised about 80% of all trees, with western larch relatively abundant at 10% of all trees. Currently, ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir are about 40% of all trees, while grand fir and lodgepole pine increased from rare species to about 40% of all trees. Historical density was about 165 trees/ha (trees > 12.7 cm in diameter). The wetter north unit of steep slopes and predominantly Douglas-fir was about 120 trees/ha, or open woodlands, whereas the drier, flatter south units of predominantly ponderosa pine were about 210 trees/ha, and densities of 160 and 190 trees/ha occurred on flat and gentle slopes, respectively, with predominantly ponderosa pine. Currently, Umatilla National Forest averages about 390 trees/ha; the north unit of grand fir and Douglas-fir tripled in density to 365 trees/ha, whereas the south units of ponderosa and lodgepole pines doubled in density to 410 trees/ha. Douglas-fir woodlands are an unusual combination of a relatively fire-sensitive tree species with an open structure, which may result from surface fires that remove tree regeneration, resulting in one layer of trees over an understory of herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. We interpreted that a spatially and temporally variable fire return interval favored Douglas-fir, but fires were frequent enough to allow herbaceous vegetation and shrubs to out-compete trees, maintaining the balance between trees and other vegetation in woodlands. Fire exclusion has resulted in forest-type transition and also an information deficit about circumstances under which relatively fire-sensitive Douglas-fir instead of fire-tolerant ponderosa pine would establish at low densities over large extents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Management of Disturbance Effects on Forest Ecosystems)
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12 pages, 2253 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Acetylation on Iron Uptake and Diffusion in Water Saturated Wood Cell Walls and Implications for Decay
by Samuel L Zelinka, Carl J. Houtman, Kolby Hirth, Steven Lacher, Linda Lorenz, Emil Engelund Thybring and Christopher G. Hunt
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1121; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101121 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2230
Abstract
Acetylation is widely used as a wood modification process that protects wood from fungal decay. The mechanisms by which acetylation protects wood are not fully understood. With these experiments, we expand upon the literature and test whether previously observed differences in iron uptake [...] Read more.
Acetylation is widely used as a wood modification process that protects wood from fungal decay. The mechanisms by which acetylation protects wood are not fully understood. With these experiments, we expand upon the literature and test whether previously observed differences in iron uptake by wood were a result of decreased iron binding capacity or slower diffusion. We measured the concentration of iron in 2 mm thick wood sections at 0, 10, and 20% acetylation as a function of time after exposure to iron solutions. The iron was introduced either strongly chelated with oxalate or weakly chelated with acetate. The concentrations of iron and oxalate in solution were chosen to be similar to those found during brown rot decay, while the concentration of iron and acetate matched previous work. The iron content of oxalate-exposed wood increased only slightly and was complete within an hour, suggesting little absorption and fast diffusion, or only slight surface adsorption. The increase in iron concentration from acetate solutions with time was consistent with Fickian diffusion, with a diffusion coefficient on the order of 10−16 m2 s−1. The rather slow diffusion rate was likely due to significant binding of iron within the wood cell wall. The diffusion coefficient did not depend on the acetylation level; however, the capacity for iron absorption from acetate solution was greatly reduced in the acetylated wood, likely due to the loss of OH groups. We explored several hypotheses that might explain why the diffusion rate appears to be independent of the acetylation level and found none of them convincing. Implications for brown rot decay mechanisms and future research are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Modification: Physical Properties and Biological Efficacy)
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15 pages, 3696 KiB  
Article
Leaf and Stem Traits are Linked to Liana Growth Rate in a Subtropical Cloud Forest
by Xiao-Long Bai, Yun-Bing Zhang, Qi Liu, Yang-Si-Ding Wang, Da Yang and Jiao-Lin Zhang
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1120; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101120 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2438
Abstract
There is accumulating evidence that the abundance and biomass of lianas are increasing with global climate change in the Neotropics. However, our knowledge of growth–trait relationships among lianas is surprisingly rare. Here, we monitored the relative growth rate of 2860 individuals from seven [...] Read more.
There is accumulating evidence that the abundance and biomass of lianas are increasing with global climate change in the Neotropics. However, our knowledge of growth–trait relationships among lianas is surprisingly rare. Here, we monitored the relative growth rate of 2860 individuals from seven deciduous and four evergreen liana species in a 20 ha subtropical cloud forest dynamics plot at high elevation (2472–2628 m a.s.l.) in southwest China. We linked the relative growth rate of lianas with nine leaf traits associated with leaf morphology, nutrient concentrations, and water hydraulic capacity as indicated by leaf vein density, and five stem wood traits related to stem water transport capacity and wood density. Our results showed that deciduous lianas have higher relative growth rates than their evergreen counterparts. Across all lianas studied, the relative growth rate was positively correlated with the leaf area and specific leaf area, but negatively correlated with leaf dry matter content. The relative growth rate of lianas was strongly correlated with nitrogen concentration after excluding the legume liana species. The relative growth rate was decoupled from leaf phosphorus and potassium concentrations, leaf vein density, and stem vessel traits across all lianas investigated. For four evergreen lianas, there were positive associations of the relative growth rate with the leaf thickness and diameter of the largest vessels. This study is the first to illustrate the relationships of liana growth with leaf and stem traits in the high-elevation subtropical cloud forest. More studies from diverse forest ecosystems are needed to comprehensively understand the mechanism underlying liana growth patterns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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23 pages, 6693 KiB  
Article
The Structure and Composition of Puerto Rico’s Urban Mangroves
by Benjamin L. Branoff and Sebastián Martinuzzi
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101119 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2974
Abstract
This study characterizes the structure and composition of mangrove forests across urban gradients in Puerto Rico. It then uses a suite of hydrologic, water chemistry, and land cover variables to test for the relative importance of urban intensity alongside flooding and water chemistry [...] Read more.
This study characterizes the structure and composition of mangrove forests across urban gradients in Puerto Rico. It then uses a suite of hydrologic, water chemistry, and land cover variables to test for the relative importance of urban intensity alongside flooding and water chemistry in explaining observed variability in forest structure and composition. Three separate statistical tests suggest a significant but limited influence of urbanness on forest composition and structure. In the most urban sites, the diameters of the largest trees were 27% larger, but all structural measurements were best explained by surface water chemistry, primarily nitrogen concentrations. Concentrations of ammonium and total Kjeldahl nitrogen best explained stem density, tree girth and canopy height. The most urban forests also contained 5.0 more species per hectare, on average, than the least urban forests, and simple regression suggests that urban metrics were the most powerful predictors of forest composition. The most urban forests were more dominated by Laguncularia racemosa, while both Avicennia germinans and Rhizophora mangle were found to be less abundant in the most urban sites, a trend that may be linked to the influence of precipitation and tidal connectivity on porewater salinity across the urban gradient. In multiple regression, no statistical difference was detected in the importance of surrounding land cover, flooding, or water quality in explaining the variance in either composition or structural metrics. This suggests that while a given forest metric may be strongly linked to either land cover, water quality, or flooding, all three are likely important and should be considered when characterizing these forests. With more human dependents in urban areas, the provisioning of important ecosystem services may be influenced by land use variables in addition to the more commonly measured metrics of water chemistry and flooding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Stand Management and Biomass Growth)
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20 pages, 1712 KiB  
Article
Monuments Unveiled: Genetic Characterization of Large Old Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) Trees Using Comparative Nuclear and Chloroplast DNA Analysis
by Claudia Mattioni, Liliana Ranzino, Marcello Cherubini, Luca Leonardi, Tommaso La Mantia, Simone Castellana, Fiorella Villani and Marco Cosimo Simeone
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101118 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2504
Abstract
Large old trees are extraordinary organisms. They not only represent a historical, landscape and environmental heritage of inestimable value, but they also witness a long history of environmental changes and human interventions, and constitute an as yet poorly known reserve of genetic variability [...] Read more.
Large old trees are extraordinary organisms. They not only represent a historical, landscape and environmental heritage of inestimable value, but they also witness a long history of environmental changes and human interventions, and constitute an as yet poorly known reserve of genetic variability which can be considered a great resource for management programs of forest species. This is the first genetic study on Italian, large, old chestnut trees (Castanea sativa Mill.). Ninety-nine trees were surveyed and analysed. For each tree, more than one sample from canopy and root suckers was collected to test for the genetic integrity of the individuals. All samples were genotyped using nine nuclear microsatellite markers (nSSRs) and 106 unique genetic profiles were identified. A Bayesian analysis performed with the software STRUCTURE revealed the occurrence of two main gene pools and unveiled the genetic relationships existing among the genotyped individuals, and with the natural chestnut populations living in proximity. A phylogeographic structure of the plastid diversity was also obtained by the use of DNA sequence variation at two marker regions, revealing different origins and probable connections of the old trees with different glacial refugia. Our results contribute to an improved evaluation of the European chestnut genetic resources and provide useful insights into the species’ history and domestication in Italy. The importance of carefully targeted conservation strategies for these invaluable organisms is reaffirmed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Diversity and Conservation of Forest Tree Species)
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29 pages, 5805 KiB  
Article
Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Growth and Physiological Performance of Catalpa bungei C.A.Mey. under Drought Stress
by Wei Chen, Panpan Meng, Huan Feng and Chunyan Wang
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101117 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 4405
Abstract
Catalpa bungei C.A.Mey. is a common ornamental timber species. Its survival and growth are greatly affected by water scarcity in arid and semi-arid areas of Northwest China. Evidence suggests arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) may improve plant drought resistance. However, there is limited information [...] Read more.
Catalpa bungei C.A.Mey. is a common ornamental timber species. Its survival and growth are greatly affected by water scarcity in arid and semi-arid areas of Northwest China. Evidence suggests arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) may improve plant drought resistance. However, there is limited information on the systematic effects of AMF on drought resistance in C. bungei seedlings. Here, a pot experiment was used to explore the effects of inoculation with the AMF Rhizophagus intraradices on the growth and physiological performance of C. bungei under different water treatment conditions. Three water levels and two mycorrhizal inoculation treatments were used with factorial design. The results showed that drought stress noticeably affected the growth and physiological performance of C. bungei seedlings. However, inoculation with R. intraradices significantly ameliorated the growth, and alleviated the effects of drought stress. The growth parameters of AMF-inoculated seedlings significantly increased regardless of water status. AMF changed the biomass allocation in seedlings by reducing the root mass ratio (RMR) and root/shoot ratio. AMF-inoculated seedlings displayed higher gas exchange parameters, photosynthetic pigment concentrations, specific leaf area (SLA), but lower specific leaf weight (SLW), regardless of water status. AMF alleviated drought-induced oxidative stress by attenuating the excess generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially H2O2 and O2−, in leaves. Inoculation with AMF under drought stress also dramatically augmented indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and gibberellins (GA3) levels and the IAA/abscisic acid (ABA) and GA3/ABA ratios, but reduced ABA and zeatin (ZT) levels in leaves. AMF symbiosis improved root morphology and promoted the absorption of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in seedlings. We conclude that inoculation with R. intraradices is potentially useful for afforestation and cultivation of C. bungei in Northwest China. Furthermore, AMF improved soil structure by increasing the glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) contents and the proportion of macro-aggregates (0.25–0.5 mm) in the rhizosphere soil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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19 pages, 4726 KiB  
Article
Are Agrarian Areas in Mediterranean Mountain Regions Becoming Extinct? A Methodological Approach to Their Conservation
by Diego Varga
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1116; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101116 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1936
Abstract
Mediterranean mountain regions have undergone several landscape changes since the end of the 19th century due to progressive depopulation and the abandonment of cattle rearing, forestry, charcoal production and agricultural activity. Such activity favored landscape dynamics by creating grassy habitats, which in turn [...] Read more.
Mediterranean mountain regions have undergone several landscape changes since the end of the 19th century due to progressive depopulation and the abandonment of cattle rearing, forestry, charcoal production and agricultural activity. Such activity favored landscape dynamics by creating grassy habitats, which in turn resulted in greater landscape diversity. This is now being lost as the forest reclaims abandoned pastures. Thus, the purpose of this work was to identify those open habitats most in need of management action to maximize biodiversity and cultural heritage conservation and minimize fire risk and management costs. These analyses show a sharp decrease of open agriculture areas, which are the habitat of many endemic species (from 46.4% to 12.3%), currently overgrown with secondary forests. Multivariate analysis and the PGP (Patch Growing Process) heuristic model indicate the areas in which the restoration of open areas (by about 8%; about 500 ha) will be the most advisable and the most beneficial, taking into account environmental, social and economic factors. The use of PGP provides for a 21% improvement in total agriculture areas. Still, the natural state of the protected Mediterranean mountain area “Alta Garrotxa” (Catalonia, Spain) is almost continuous forest. However, the management models proposed in this study offer flexible precepts to achieve the desired landscape patterns and maintain biodiversity, while conserving cultural heritage and decreasing the risk of fire. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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11 pages, 3638 KiB  
Article
Effect of Supercritical CO2 Drying on Moisture Transfer and Wood Property of Eucalyptus urophydis
by Lin Yang and Honghai Liu
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1115; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101115 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2536
Abstract
Wood dried using supercritical CO2 has unique properties because water is removed directly from the cell lumens through the cycling between supercritical and gas phases. Eucalyptus urophydis green wood was dried by supercritical CO2 at 50 °C and pressure of 10, [...] Read more.
Wood dried using supercritical CO2 has unique properties because water is removed directly from the cell lumens through the cycling between supercritical and gas phases. Eucalyptus urophydis green wood was dried by supercritical CO2 at 50 °C and pressure of 10, 20, and 30 MPa; the effect of supercritical CO2 drying on moisture content distribution and transfer, as well as the permeability and extractive content of the wood, was investigated. The results showed that the supercritical CO2 drying rate was high, showing the highest drying rate at 20 MPa and the lowest at 10 MPa. Drying rate increased with pressure below 20 MPa in this study; drying rate represented no positive relation to pressure over 20 Mpa. Moisture content distribution was more uneven in the low-pressure drying conditions and in the middle transverse section of the specimens. The moisture content gradient in tangential was greater than that in longitudinal, especially for the drying of 10 MPa, indicating that water was removed mainly in the former direction of wood. More extractives were removed from wood at higher pressure during supercritical CO2 drying. Bordered pits were broken up more at higher pressure conditions. The decreased extract yields and increased amount of opened bordered pits increased the permeability of the wood after supercritical CO2 drying. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Modification: Physical Properties and Biological Efficacy)
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22 pages, 2420 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Significant Factors Influencing the Amount of Collected Forest Berries in the Czech Republic
by Marcel Riedl, Vilém Jarský, Daniel Zahradník, Petra Palátová, Roman Dudík, Jitka Meňházová and Luděk Šišák
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1114; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101114 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2991
Abstract
Bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.), blackberries (Rubus fruticosus L.) and cowberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) are the most important forest berries collected in the Czech Republic (CZ). The average annual value of these collected berry species is [...] Read more.
Bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.), blackberries (Rubus fruticosus L.) and cowberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) are the most important forest berries collected in the Czech Republic (CZ). The average annual value of these collected berry species is estimated to be worth more than EUR 86 million at 2018 prices. The data concerning the collection and use of forest fruits have been systematically collected in a highly detailed structure since 2008, which enables the application of the advanced statistical methods used in this paper. The results of the analyses inter alia demonstrate that collecting forest berries is not only an important recreational activity, but it has an important economic effect. Therefore, this article also deals with the collection of forest fruits, especially bilberries, as a potentially important non-wood forest product (NWFP) for sustainable forest management and also analyses the external factors influencing the total annual amount of collected forest berries. A deeper knowledge of the customer and his or her behaviour—customer insight—are prerequisites for the proactive management of forest ecosystems. The first step to “berry picker insight” is to learn more about the demand, its structure and factors which influence this demand. Thus, one of the research questions concentrates on the analysis of the sociodemographic characteristics of the berry picker that are relevant for explaining the amount of collected forest berries in the Czech Republic. Knowledge of these factors can contribute to a more effective application of marketing methods for shaping and influencing the demand so that, in terms of time and place, it is more in line with the supply, which is limited by the natural conditions, growing season and production potential of forest ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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20 pages, 2300 KiB  
Article
Stocks of Carbon in Logs and Timber Products from Forest Management in the Southwestern Amazon
by Flora Magdaline Benitez Romero, Laércio Antônio Gonçalves Jacovine, Sabina Cerruto Ribeiro, José Ambrosio Ferreira Neto, Lucas Ferrante, Samuel José Silva Soares da Rocha, Carlos Moreira Miquelino Eleto Torres, Vicente Toledo Machado de Morais Junior, Ricardo de Oliveira Gaspar, Santiago Ivan Sagredo Velasquez, Edson Vidal, Christina Lynn Staudhammer and Philip Martin Fearnside
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1113; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101113 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3621
Abstract
Amazon forest management plans have a variety of effects on carbon emissions, both positive and negative. All of these effects need to be quantified to assess the role of this land use in climate change. Here, we contribute to this effort by evaluating [...] Read more.
Amazon forest management plans have a variety of effects on carbon emissions, both positive and negative. All of these effects need to be quantified to assess the role of this land use in climate change. Here, we contribute to this effort by evaluating the carbon stocks in logs and timber products from an area under forest management in the southeastern portion of Acre State, Brazil. One hundred and thirty-six trees of 12 species had DBH ranging from 50.9 cm to 149.9 cm. Basic wood density ranged from 0.3 cm−3 to 0.8 g cm−3 with an average of 0.6 g cm−3. The logs had a total volume of 925.2 m3, biomass of 564 Mg, and carbon stock of 484.2 MgC. The average volumetric yield coefficient (VYC) was 52.3% and the carbon yield coefficient (CYC) was 53.2% for logs of the 12 species. The sawn-wood products had a total volume of 484.2 m3, biomass of 302.6 Mg, and carbon stock of 149.9 MgC. Contributions of the different species to the total carbon stored in sawn-wood products ranged from 2.2% to 21.0%. Means and standard deviations for carbon transferred to sawn-wood products per-species from the 1252.8-ha harvested area ranged from 0.4 ± 1.1 MgC to 2.9 ± 0.4 MgC, with the largest percentages of the total carbon stored in wood products being from Dipteryx odorata (21.0%), Apuleia leiocarpa (18.7%), and Eschweilera grandiflora (11.7%). A total of 44,783 pieces of sawn lumber (such as rafters, planks, boards, battens, beams, and small beams) was obtained from logs derived from these trees. Lumber production was highest for boards (54.6% of volume, 47.4% of carbon) and lowest for small beams (1.9% of volume, 2.3% of carbon). The conversion factor for transforming log volume into carbon stored in sawn-wood products was 16.2%. Our results also show that species that retain low amounts of carbon should be allowed to remain in the forest, thereby avoiding low sawmill yield (and consequent generation of waste) and allowing these trees to continue fulfilling environmental functions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Forests Carbon Fluxes and Sequestration)
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20 pages, 4101 KiB  
Article
Long- and Short-Term Inorganic Nitrogen Runoff from a Karst Catchment in Austria
by Thomas Dirnböck, Heike Brielmann, Ika Djukic, Sarah Geiger, Andreas Hartmann, Franko Humer, Johannes Kobler, Martin Kralik, Yan Liu, Michael Mirtl and Gisela Pröll
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1112; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101112 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2820
Abstract
Excess nitrogen (N) deposition and gaseous N emissions from industrial, domestic, and agricultural sources have led to increased nitrate leaching, the loss of biological diversity, and has affected carbon (C) sequestration in forest ecosystems. Nitrate leaching affects the purity of karst water resources, [...] Read more.
Excess nitrogen (N) deposition and gaseous N emissions from industrial, domestic, and agricultural sources have led to increased nitrate leaching, the loss of biological diversity, and has affected carbon (C) sequestration in forest ecosystems. Nitrate leaching affects the purity of karst water resources, which contribute around 50% to Austria’s drinking water supply. Here we present an evaluation of the drivers of dissolved inorganic N (DIN) concentrations and fluxes from a karst catchment in the Austrian Alps (LTER Zöbelboden) from 27 years of records. In addition, a hydrological model was used together with climatic scenario data to predict expected future runoff dynamics. The study area was exposed to increasing N deposition during the 20th century (up to 30 to 35 kg N ha−1 y−1), which are still at levels of 25.5 ± 3.6 and 19.9 ± 4.2 kg N ha−1 y−1 in the spruce and the mixed deciduous forests, respectively. Albeit N deposition was close to or exceeded critical loads for several decades, 70–83% of the inorganic N retained in the catchment from 2000 to 2018, and NO3- concentrations in the runoff stayed <10 mg L−1 unless high-flow events occurred or forest stand-replacing disturbances. We identified tree growth as the main sink for inorganic N, which might together with lower runoff, increase retention of only weakly decreasing N deposition in the future. However, since recurring forest stand-replacement is predicted in the future as a result of a combination of climatically driven disturbance agents, pulses of elevated nitrate concentrations in the catchment runoff will likely add to groundwater pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Responses of Forest Ecosystems to Nitrogen Deposition)
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15 pages, 3690 KiB  
Article
Influence of Vegetation Restoration on Soil Hydraulic Properties in South China
by Peiling Liu, Xiaodong Liu, Yuhang Dai, Yingjie Feng, Qianmei Zhang and Guowei Chu
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1111; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101111 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 2415
Abstract
Over the past several decades, vegetation restoration has been carried out extensively in South China. Theoretically, the process of vegetation restoration is usually accompanied by changes in soil properties. However, the effects of vegetation restoration on soil hydraulic properties are poorly documented in [...] Read more.
Over the past several decades, vegetation restoration has been carried out extensively in South China. Theoretically, the process of vegetation restoration is usually accompanied by changes in soil properties. However, the effects of vegetation restoration on soil hydraulic properties are poorly documented in humid subtropical China. In this study, we compared soil hydraulic properties across three undisturbed subtropical forests, i.e., Pinus massoniana forest (PF), mixed Pinus massoniana/broad-leaved forest (MF), and monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest (BF), which represented a vegetation restoration sequence in South China. Our results showed that vegetation restoration decreased the bulk density while increasing the total porosity and the soil organic matter (SOM). The clay content and capillary porosity of soil in the middle- and late-recovery-stage forests were significantly higher than those in the early stage, which was consistent with the soil water-holding capacity. The saturated hydraulic conductivity (KS) values of BF were always significantly higher than those of the other forests. In the whole soil profile, the water-holding capacity and KS in the topsoil (above 30 cm depth) were significantly higher than those in the deep soil for all forests. Further analyses indicated that the SOM was the main factor that affected KS, and the relationship of them could be fitted by a linear equation. Overall, our study revealed vegetation restoration ameliorates soil hydraulic properties in humid subtropical China. And the role of SOM in improving soil hydraulic properties should be emphasized in future forest ecosystem management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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10 pages, 3004 KiB  
Article
Effects of Light Intensity and Girdling Treatments on the Production of Female Cones in Japanese Larch (Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carr.): Implications for the Management of Seed Orchards
by Michinari Matsushita, Hiroki Nishikawa, Akira Tamura and Makoto Takahashi
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101110 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2460
Abstract
To ensure sustainable forestry, it is important to establish an efficient management procedure for improving the seed production capacity of seed orchards. In this study, we evaluated the effects of girdling and increasing light intensity on female cone production in an old L. [...] Read more.
To ensure sustainable forestry, it is important to establish an efficient management procedure for improving the seed production capacity of seed orchards. In this study, we evaluated the effects of girdling and increasing light intensity on female cone production in an old L. kaempferi (Lamb.) Carr. seed orchard. We also evaluated whether there is a genotype-specific reproductive response to these factors among clones. The results showed that female cone production was augmented by girdling and increasing light intensity. There was a difference in the effectiveness of girdling treatment levels, and the probability of producing female cones increased markedly at higher girdling levels. At light intensities where the relative photosynthetic photon flux density was higher than 50%, more than half of the trees tended to produce female cones, even in intact (ungirdled) trees, and the genotype-specific response to light intensity was more apparent in less-reproductive clones. These findings suggested that girdling less-reproductive trees combined with increasing light intensity was an effective management strategy for improving cone production in old seed orchards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetics and Improvement of Forest Trees)
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18 pages, 1692 KiB  
Article
Soil Fungal Communities under Pinus patula Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham. Plantation Forests of Different Ages in Ethiopia
by Demelash Alem, Tatek Dejene, Juan Andrés Oria-de-Rueda, József Geml and Pablo Martín-Pinto
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101109 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2673
Abstract
The cultivation of plantation forests is likely to change the diversity and composition of soil fungal communities. At present, there is scant information about these communities in Ethiopian plantation forest systems. We assessed the soil fungal communities in Pinus patula Schiede ex Schltdl. [...] Read more.
The cultivation of plantation forests is likely to change the diversity and composition of soil fungal communities. At present, there is scant information about these communities in Ethiopian plantation forest systems. We assessed the soil fungal communities in Pinus patula Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham. stands aged 5, 11, or 36-years-old using DNA metabarcoding of ITS2 amplicons. The ecological conditions of each plot, such as climate, altitude, and soil, were similar. Stand age and soil fertility influenced soil fungal species diversity and ecological guilds. In total, 2262 fungal operational taxonomic units were identified, of which 2% were ectomycorrhizal (ECM). The diversity of ECM fungi was higher in the 5 and 36-year-old stands than in the 11-year-old P. patula stands. Contrary to our expectations, a high level of ECM species diversity was observed in young stands, suggesting that these ECM species could compensate for the effects of nutrient stress in these stands. Our results also suggested that the abundance of plant pathogens and saprotrophs was not affected by stand age. This study provides baseline information about fungal community changes across tree stands of different ages in P. patula plantations in Ethiopia that are likely related to ECM fungi in young stands where relatively low soil fertility prevails. However, given that the plots were established in a single stand for each age class for each treatment, this study should be considered as a case study and, therefore, caution should be exercised when applying the conclusions to other stands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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24 pages, 2051 KiB  
Article
A Design for Addressing Multiple Ecosystem Services in Forest Management Planning
by Emin Zeki Baskent, José Guilherme Borges, Jan Kašpar and Meryem Tahri
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101108 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5004
Abstract
Forest policy and decision-makers are challenged by the need to balance the increasing demand for multiple ecosystem services while addressing the impacts of natural disturbances (e.g., wildfires, droughts, wind, insect attacks) and global change scenarios (e.g., climate change) on its potential supply. This [...] Read more.
Forest policy and decision-makers are challenged by the need to balance the increasing demand for multiple ecosystem services while addressing the impacts of natural disturbances (e.g., wildfires, droughts, wind, insect attacks) and global change scenarios (e.g., climate change) on its potential supply. This challenge motivates the development of a framework for incorporating concerns with a wide range of ecosystem services in multiple criteria management planning contexts. Thus, the paper focused on both the analysis of the current state-of-the art research in forest management planning and the development of a conceptual framework to accommodate various components in a forest management process. On the basis of a thorough recent classification of forest management planning problems and the state-of-the-art research, we defined the key dimensions of the framework and the process. The emphasis was on helping to identify how concerns with a wide range of ecosystem services may be analyzed and better understood by forest ecosystem management planning. This research discusses the potential of contemporary management planning approaches to address multiple forest ecosystem services. It highlights the need for a multi-level perspective and appropriate spatial resolution to integrate multiple ecosystem services. It discusses the importance of methods and tools that may help support stakeholders’ involvement and public participation in hierarchical planning processes. The research addresses the need of methods and tools that may encapsulate the ecological, economic, and social complexity of forest ecosystem management to provide an efficient plan, information about tradeoffs between ecosystem services, and the sensitivity of the plan to uncertain parameters (e.g., prices, climate change) on time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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19 pages, 1494 KiB  
Article
Interactions between Phytophthora cactorum, Armillaria gallica and Betula pendula Roth. Seedlings Subjected to Defoliation
by Justyna Anna Nowakowska, Marcin Stocki, Natalia Stocka, Sławomir Ślusarski, Miłosz Tkaczyk, João Maria Caetano, Mirela Tulik, Tom Hsiang and Tomasz Oszako
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1107; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101107 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2927
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to better understand the interactive impact of two soil-borne pathogens, Phytophthora cactorum and Armillaria gallica, on seedlings of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) subjected to stress caused by mechanical defoliation, simulating primary insect feeding. This is [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to better understand the interactive impact of two soil-borne pathogens, Phytophthora cactorum and Armillaria gallica, on seedlings of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) subjected to stress caused by mechanical defoliation, simulating primary insect feeding. This is the first experimental confirmation of silver birch seedling root damage (and in consequence shoot mortality) caused by the additive effect of defoliation stress and P. cactorum inoculation via soil. However, the most severe damage to roots occurred after A. gallica inoculation. One year after treatments, chlorophyll fluorescence measurement, and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to analyze the photosynthetic activity in leaves, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by the birch leaves, and chemical compounds from the roots. The cumulative effect of the two pathogens and partial defoliation reduced photosynthetic activity, suggesting dysfunction of photosystem PSII due to the applied stresses. In summary, it seems that the main differences in photosynthetic performance could be attributed to Armillaria infection. The birch leaves in seedlings exposed to 50% defoliation, and inoculation with P.cactorum and A. gallica, emitted more aromatic carbonyls and alcohols, as well as half as much aliphatic esters, compared to controls. In infected birch roots, the production of phenols, triterpenes, and fatty alcohols increased, but fatty acids decreased. Higher levels of aromatic carbonyls and alcohols in leaves, as well as phenolic compounds in the roots of stressed birches (compared to control) suggest an activation of plant systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Forest and Plantation Trees)
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11 pages, 1827 KiB  
Article
Key Community Assembly Processes Switch between Scales in Shaping Beta Diversity in Two Primary Forests, Southwest China
by Mengesha Asefa, Han-Dong Wen, Min Cao and Yue-Hua Hu
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101106 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1774
Abstract
Environmental and dispersal-based processes have been widely investigated for the understanding of community assembly. However, the relative importance of these ecological processes across spatial scales, life history stages and forest types needs to be largely studied. We test the variability of ecological processes [...] Read more.
Environmental and dispersal-based processes have been widely investigated for the understanding of community assembly. However, the relative importance of these ecological processes across spatial scales, life history stages and forest types needs to be largely studied. We test the variability of ecological processes in shaping tree community composition across life stages and spatial scales, and in particular, the hypothesis that dispersal limitation dominates at smaller scales and early life stages, but environmental filtering at larger scales and later life stages. We used spatially explicit point process models to estimate the relative importance of environmental and dispersal processes and their combined effect on beta diversity across spatial scales and life stages in tropical and subtropical forests. These models fit the observed species distribution pattern and generated realizations of the fitted models for each species. We found that the importance of environmental and dispersal processes did not shift with life stages or vegetation types, but did with spatial scales. Dispersal provided the best explanation of large-scale patterns, but dispersal combined with environmental selection was superior for small-scale patterns. In conclusion, we confirm the importance of spatial scale for the effects and identification of community assembly mechanisms. Our results also suggest that the importance of both dispersal and environmental processes for community assembly could be pervasive across life stages and vegetation types. The generality of these findings should be tested further in different vegetation types and life stages to assess whether specific ecological processes have consistent effects on community structure across life stages and vegetation types. Full article
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19 pages, 4255 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of the Impact of Forest Policy on Rural Areas of Chile
by Raúl Cerda, Rosa Gallardo-Cobos and Pedro Sánchez-Zamora
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101105 - 18 Oct 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3019
Abstract
The relationship between the forest sector and the well-being of people that depend on it for their economic livelihoods in rural areas is of strong interest in forest policy. In this sense, Chile has developed a forest policy that has had positive impacts, [...] Read more.
The relationship between the forest sector and the well-being of people that depend on it for their economic livelihoods in rural areas is of strong interest in forest policy. In this sense, Chile has developed a forest policy that has had positive impacts, particularly on economic and productive aspects, but also negative impacts, such as the reduction of natural forest area, biodiversity, and provision of ecosystem services, as well as the increase in social conflicts and land abandonment. However, there are few studies that have evaluated the impacts of forest policy on rural population and development of the territory. Therefore, the objective of this research is to evaluate the impacts of Chilean forest policy on rural communities, particularly in terms of demographic variables and indicators of community well-being. The study area corresponds to the Bio Bio and Ñuble Regions (Chile), and the analysis includes productive, demographic, socioeconomic, and educational characteristics of population. The results show that the forestry policy implemented was able to generate a significant increase in the proportion of forest area. However, when this increase is mainly of the type of exotic forest plantations, it is associated with a demographic and socio-economic detriment of the population in some counties of the study area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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14 pages, 2346 KiB  
Article
Timeline of Leaf and Cambial Phenology in Relation to Development of Initial Conduits in Xylem and Phloem in Three Coexisting Sub-Mediterranean Deciduous Tree Species
by Jožica Gričar, Andreja Vedenik, Gregor Skoberne, Polona Hafner and Peter Prislan
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101104 - 17 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2913
Abstract
It is unclear how the anticipated climate change will affect the timing of phenology of different tree organs/tissues and thus the whole-tree functioning. We examined the timing of leaf phenology and secondary growth in three coexisting deciduous tree species (Quercus pubescens Willd., [...] Read more.
It is unclear how the anticipated climate change will affect the timing of phenology of different tree organs/tissues and thus the whole-tree functioning. We examined the timing of leaf phenology and secondary growth in three coexisting deciduous tree species (Quercus pubescens Willd., Fraxinus ornus L. and Ostrya carpinifolia Scop) from a sub-Mediterranean region in 2019. In addition, we investigated the relationship between leaf and cambial phenology and the onset of the potential functioning of initial conduits, as determined by the completed differentiation process (vessels) or final size (sieve tubes). For this purpose, leaf development was monitored and the microcores of cambium and the youngest phloem and xylem increments were repeatedly collected at 7–10-day intervals during the growing season. The results revealed differences in the timing of leaf development and seasonal radial growth patterns in spring among the studied tree species, depending on wood porosity. We found that cambial cell production started in all cases in the first half of March. However, in ring-porous Q. pubescens and F. ornus, radial growth in the stem occurred more than a month before buds were swollen, whereas in diffuse-porous O. carpinifolia, these two events were detected at almost the same time. The end of cambial cell production occurred earliest in F. ornus (mid-July) and two weeks later also in the other two species. The widest initial earlywood vessels and early phloem sieve tubes were found in Q. pubescens, the narrowest initial earlywood vessels in O. carpinifolia and the narrowest early phloem sieve tubes in F. ornus. This indicates differences in the efficiency of conducting systems among the studied species. This novel approach of studying phloem phenology and anatomy in relation to leaf and xylem development contributes to a better understanding of how different tree species adapt their structure of secondary vascular tissues in response to environmental change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Climate Change on Tree Growth and Physiology)
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11 pages, 1712 KiB  
Article
Impact of Recent Climate Change on Water-Use Efficiency Strategies of Larix sibirica in the Altai-Sayan Mountain Range
by Olga V. Churakova (Sidorova), Marina V. Fonti, Rolf T. W. Siegwolf, Matthias Saurer and Vladimir S. Myglan
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1103; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101103 - 17 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2425
Abstract
A strong increase in the mean annual air temperature during the past 50 years by up to 0.54 °C was recorded in the Altai region (45°–52° N; 84°–99° E) compared to the global value of 0.07 °C over the period 1901–2008. The impact [...] Read more.
A strong increase in the mean annual air temperature during the past 50 years by up to 0.54 °C was recorded in the Altai region (45°–52° N; 84°–99° E) compared to the global value of 0.07 °C over the period 1901–2008. The impact of the climatic changes on the hydrology are complex in these mountainous forest ecosystems and not fully understood. We aim to reveal differences in the intrinsic water-use efficiencies (iWUE) strategy by larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) derived from stable carbon isotopes at contrasting sites, ranging from the steppe (Ersin, Chadan) to high-elevation (Mongun, Koksu) sites of the Altai over the past century. The iWUE trends increased rapidly for all study sites except Chadan, where a decreasing trend after 2010 has been observed. This decline can be related to increased amount of precipitation compared to increased drought at the other sites. In general, the iWUE is increased up to 14% (1985–2019 compared to 1919–1984), which is lower compared to other studies across the globe likely due to harsh climatic conditions. Vapor pressure deficit and maximal air temperature are impacting Siberian larch significantly and affecting their iWUE differently at the high-elevated and steppe sites of the Altai over the past century. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Variations in Forest Water-Use Efficiency in the Anthropocene: From Leaf to Global Analyses)
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16 pages, 2634 KiB  
Article
Patterns of Diversity in the Symbiotic Mite Assemblage of the Mountain Pine Beetle, Dendroctonus Ponderosae Hopkins
by Sneha Vissa, Javier E. Mercado, Danielle Malesky, Derek A. Uhey, Boyd A. Mori, Wayne Knee, Maya L. Evenden and Richard W. Hofstetter
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101102 - 17 Oct 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2549
Abstract
The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae (Coleoptera: Scolytinae), is an economically important bark beetle species with a wide geographic range spanning from the southwestern United States into northern Canada. This beetle causes extensive tree mortality to 13 pine species. Mites (Acari) are [...] Read more.
The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae (Coleoptera: Scolytinae), is an economically important bark beetle species with a wide geographic range spanning from the southwestern United States into northern Canada. This beetle causes extensive tree mortality to 13 pine species. Mites (Acari) are common and abundant symbionts of mountain beetles that may influence their fitness through positive and negative interactions. We present a unique assessment of the mite associates of mountain pine beetles using measures of alpha and beta diversity. We sampled phoretic mites from five beetle populations: Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, Utah (USA), and Alberta (Canada) that varied in host tree species, local climate, and beetle population level. We collected 4848 mites from 8 genera and 12 species. Fifty to seventy percent of beetles carried mites in flight with the highest mite loads occurring in middle and southern populations; decreasing in northern populations. Mite assemblages (i.e., both richness and composition) varied along a south to north latitudinal gradient and were driven by species turnover (i.e., species replacement). Differences in mite composition increased with distance between populations. We discuss climatic variation, environmental filtering, and host tree differences as factors that could affect differences in mite composition between beetle populations and discuss implications for functional shifts. Our results could represent a model for estimating diversity patterns of mite symbionts associated with other major insect pests in coniferous forest systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Pathology and Entomology)
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22 pages, 5882 KiB  
Article
Towards Eradication of Phytophthora cinnamomi Using a Fallow Approach in a Mediterranean Climate
by William A. Dunstan, Kay Howard, Andrew Grigg, Christopher Shaw, Treena I. Burgess and Giles E. St. J. Hardy
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1101; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101101 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1950
Abstract
While eradication from haul roads was achieved, more work is required to eradicate P. cinnamomi from stockpiles and bunds. We can now implement different management strategies to the construction of bunds and stockpiles to facilitate eradication. Infestation by Phytophthora cinnamomi results in large [...] Read more.
While eradication from haul roads was achieved, more work is required to eradicate P. cinnamomi from stockpiles and bunds. We can now implement different management strategies to the construction of bunds and stockpiles to facilitate eradication. Infestation by Phytophthora cinnamomi results in large financial and management constraints to environmental managers. This pathogen was considered impossible to eradicate until recent success with treatments including host removal, herbicide and fungicide application, soil fumigation and physical root barriers. We investigated the most benign of these treatments; keeping the area devoid of living host material. In a Western Australian mine site within a Mediterranean climate, haul roads, stockpiles and roadside bunds had P. cinnamomi colonised Pinus stem plugs buried at multiple depths. Over time, we examined the effects of soil moisture and temperature in different soil conditions and types to compare the recovery of the pathogen. Results: Within 12 months, the pathogen could not be recovered from the haul roads. In the stockpiles, depth produced significantly different results. In 3 of the 4 sites, the pathogen was not recovered at 10 cm after 20 months. By 12 months, at 50 cm, there was an 80% reduction in recovery, but only one stockpile had no recovery from 50 cm, which occurred by 36 months. Bunds were up to 1.75 m high and had variable results for plugs buried at 30 cm, influenced by height, the types of soils and shading. One of the smallest bunds was the only bund where the pathogen was not recoverable (by 22 months). This study provides strong support for using a fallow period to reduce or eliminate P. cinnamomi inoculum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Human Interventions in Spread of Soilborne Forest Pathogens and Methods for Mitigation)
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18 pages, 7115 KiB  
Article
Streamflow Variability Indicated by False Rings in Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.)
by Matthew D. Therrell, Emily A. Elliott, Matthew D. Meko, Joshua C. Bregy, Clay S. Tucker, Grant L. Harley, Justin T. Maxwell and Glenn A. Tootle
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1100; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101100 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3168
Abstract
Despite growing in wet lowland and riparian settings, Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. (bald cypress) has a strong response to hydroclimate variability, and tree ring chronologies derived from bald cypress have been used extensively to reconstruct drought, precipitation and streamflow. Previous studies have also [...] Read more.
Despite growing in wet lowland and riparian settings, Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. (bald cypress) has a strong response to hydroclimate variability, and tree ring chronologies derived from bald cypress have been used extensively to reconstruct drought, precipitation and streamflow. Previous studies have also demonstrated that false rings in bald cypress appear to be the result of variations in water availability during the growing season. In this study 28 trees from two sites located adjacent to the Choctawhatchee River in Northwestern Florida, USA were used to develop a false ring record extending from 1881 to 2014. Twenty false ring events were recorded during the available instrumental era (1931–2014). This record was compared with daily and monthly streamflow data from a nearby gage. All 20 of the false-ring events recorded during the instrumental period occurred during years in which greatly increased streamflow occurred late in the growing season. Many of these wet events appear to be the result of rainfall resulting from landfalling tropical cyclones. We also found that the intra-annual position of false rings within growth rings reflects streamflow variability and combining the false-ring record with tree ring width chronologies improves the estimation of overall summer streamflow by 14%. Future work using these and other quantitative approaches for the identification and measurement of false ring variables in tree rings may improve tree-ring reconstructions of streamflow and potentially the record of tropical cyclone rainfall events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Formation and Environmental Constraints: Multiscale Approach)
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23 pages, 4464 KiB  
Article
Towards an Optimization of Sample Plot Size and Scanner Position Layout for Terrestrial Laser Scanning in Multi-Scan Mode
by Tim Ritter, Christoph Gollob and Arne Nothdurft
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1099; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101099 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2421
Abstract
A novel approach is presented to model the tree detection probability of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) in forest inventory applications using a multi-scan mode. The traditional distance sampling framework is further extended to account for multiple scan positions at a single sample plot [...] Read more.
A novel approach is presented to model the tree detection probability of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) in forest inventory applications using a multi-scan mode. The traditional distance sampling framework is further extended to account for multiple scan positions at a single sample plot and to allow for an imperfect detection probability at distance r = 0. The novel methodology is tested with real world data, as well as in simulations. It is shown that the underlying detection model can be parameterized using only data from single scans. Hereby, it is possible to predict the detection probability also for different sample plot sizes and scanner position layouts in a multi-scan setting. Simulations showed that a minor discretization bias can occur if the sample size is small. The methodology enables a generalized optimization of the scanning layout in a multi-scan setting with respect to the detection probability and the sample plot area. This will increase the efficiency of multi-scan TLS-based forest inventories in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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21 pages, 1366 KiB  
Review
Rediscovering the Contributions of Forests and Trees to Transition Global Food Systems
by James L. Chamberlain, Dietrich Darr and Kathrin Meinhold
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101098 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9611
Abstract
The importance of forests to safeguard agricultural production through regulating ecosystem services such as clean water, soil protection, and climate regulation is well documented, yet the contributions of forests and trees to provide food for the nutritional needs of the increasing human population [...] Read more.
The importance of forests to safeguard agricultural production through regulating ecosystem services such as clean water, soil protection, and climate regulation is well documented, yet the contributions of forests and trees to provide food for the nutritional needs of the increasing human population has not been fully realized. Plants, fungi, and animals harvested from forests have long provided multiple benefits—for nutrition, health, income, and cultural purposes. Across the globe, the main element of “forest management” has been industrial wood production. Sourcing food from forests has been not even an afterthought but a subordinate activity that just happens and is largely invisible in official statistics. For many people, forests ensure a secure supply of essential foods and vital nutrients. For others, foraging forests for food offers cultural, recreational, and diversified culinary benefits. Increasingly, these products are perceived by consumers as being more “natural” and healthier than food from agricultural production. Forest-and wild-sourced products increasingly are being used as key ingredients in multiple billion dollar industries due to rising demand for “natural” food production. Consumer trends demonstrate growing interests in forest food gathering that involves biological processes and new forms of culturally embedded interactions with the natural world. Further, intensifying calls to “re-orient” agricultural production provides opportunities to expand the roles of forests in food production; to reset food systems by integrating forests and trees. We use examples of various plants, such as baobab, to explore ways forests and trees provide for food security and nutrition and illustrate elements of a framework to encourage integration of forests and trees. Forests and trees provide innovative opportunities and technological and logistical challenges to expand food systems and transition to a bioeconomy. This shift is essential to meet the expanding demand for secure and nutritious food, while conserving forest biodiversity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest, Foods and Nutrition)
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18 pages, 3753 KiB  
Article
Modeling Biomass and Nutrients in a Eucalyptus Stand in the Cerrado
by Marco B. X. Valadão, Karla M. S. Carneiro, Fabiana P. Ribeiro, Jonas Inkotte, Maísa I. Rodrigues, Thallita R. S. Mendes, Daniel A. Vieira, Renan A. M. Matias, Mirella B. O. Lima, Eder P. Miguel and Alcides Gatto
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1097; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101097 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2282
Abstract
The prediction of biological processes, which involve growth and plant development, is possible via the adjustment of mathematical models. In forest areas, these models assist in management practices, silviculture, harvesting, and soil fertility. Diameter, basal area, and height are predictors of volume and [...] Read more.
The prediction of biological processes, which involve growth and plant development, is possible via the adjustment of mathematical models. In forest areas, these models assist in management practices, silviculture, harvesting, and soil fertility. Diameter, basal area, and height are predictors of volume and biomass estimates in forest stands. This study utilized different non-linear models for estimating biomass and nutrient values in the aerial biomass and roots of an unmanaged eucalypt stand in Cerrado dystrophic soil. It was hypothesized that the models would estimate the nutrients of the aboveground biomass and roots after meeting the selection and validation criteria. By statistical analysis of the parameters and subsequent validation, the Schumacher–Hall model was presented to be the best fit for biomass and nutrients. This result confirmed the ability of different variables, including diameter, basal area, and height, to be predicted. Estimating the nutrient values in the aboveground biomass and roots allowed a better understanding of the quality of the vegetal residues that remained in the soil. For dystrophic soils, which occur in the Cerrado, these estimates become even more relevant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Biofuel Harvest on Nutrient and Carbon Cycles and Soil Content)
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21 pages, 3009 KiB  
Article
Biodiversity of the Cocoa Agroforests of the Bengamisa-Yangambi Forest Landscape in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
by Germain Batsi, Denis Jean Sonwa, Lisette Mangaza, Jérôme Ebuy and Jean-Marie Kahindo
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1096; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101096 - 15 Oct 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4328
Abstract
Cocoa agroforestry has evolved into an accepted natural resource conservation strategy in the tropics. It is regularly proposed as one of the main uses for REDD+ projects (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, [...] Read more.
Cocoa agroforestry has evolved into an accepted natural resource conservation strategy in the tropics. It is regularly proposed as one of the main uses for REDD+ projects (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. However, few studies have characterized the cocoa agroforestry systems in this country. Hence, this research proposes to determine the impact of distance from Kisangani (the unique city in the landscape) and land-use intensity on the floristic composition of cocoa agroforests in Bengamisa-Yangambi forest landscape in the Congo Basin. The results revealed that species diversity and density of plants associated with cocoa are influenced by the distance from Kisangani (the main city in the landscape and province). Farmers maintain/introduce trees that play one or more of several roles. They may host caterpillars, provide food, medicine, or timber, or deliver other functions such as providing shade to the cocoa tree. Farmers maintain plants with edible products (mainly oil palms) in their agroforests more than other plants. Thus, these agroforests play key roles in conserving the floristic diversity of degraded areas. As cocoa agroforestry has greater potential for production, biodiversity conservation, and environmental protection, it should be used to slow down or even stop deforestation and forest degradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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19 pages, 3275 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Wind Exposure on Scots Pine Trees: Within-Stem Variability of Wood Density and Mechanical Properties
by Arkadiusz Tomczak, Tomasz Jelonek, Witold Pazdrowski, Witold Grzywiński, Przemysław Mania and Karol Tomczak
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1095; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101095 - 14 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2788
Abstract
Survival in variable conditions of wind exposure depends on the strategy of trees in adapting to environmental constraints. There are many studies investigating the effect of wind on the adaptation of trees, but little attention is paid to the properties of the wood, [...] Read more.
Survival in variable conditions of wind exposure depends on the strategy of trees in adapting to environmental constraints. There are many studies investigating the effect of wind on the adaptation of trees, but little attention is paid to the properties of the wood, particularly within-stem variability. In the present work, an analysis was made of within-stem variability of the density and mechanical properties of Scots pine wood from parts of stands with different wind exposure (stand edge, forest interior). The research was carried out in north-western Poland, in seven selected pine stands (without other species in the canopy) aged from 82 to 87 years. In each stand, three trial plots were marked, each at a different distance from the edge of the stand. The first plot was immediately adjacent to the edge (0–20 m), the second was at a distance of 30–50 m, and the third was at a distance of 60–80 m. Generally, wind exposure, defined by the distance from the windward edge, did not significantly affect the tree morphology and wood properties. A statistically significant difference was found only for the modulus of elasticity (MOE), between stand edge and forest interior. Trees growing at a distance from the stand edge compensate for their greater stem slenderness with higher elasticity. A certain growth response to wind loads is also represented by the within-stem variability of wood. We found that within-stem variability of wood at the stand edge is higher than in the forest interior. At various points along the stem, the wood density and strength were generally higher on the eastern radius (on the leeward side of the stem). Different wind resistance requirements at the stand edge and in the interior lead to combinations of tree architecture and wood properties that enable the best resistance to wind loads. Full article
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12 pages, 4013 KiB  
Article
Wood vs. Canopy Allocation of Aboveground Net Primary Productivity in a Mediterranean Forest during 21 Years of Experimental Rainfall Exclusion
by Romà Ogaya and Josep Peñuelas
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1094; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101094 - 14 Oct 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2405
Abstract
A Mediterranean holm oak forest was subjected to experimental partial rainfall exclusion during 21 consecutive years to study the effects of the expected decrease in water availability for Mediterranean vegetation in the coming decades. Allocation in woody structures and total aboveground allocation were [...] Read more.
A Mediterranean holm oak forest was subjected to experimental partial rainfall exclusion during 21 consecutive years to study the effects of the expected decrease in water availability for Mediterranean vegetation in the coming decades. Allocation in woody structures and total aboveground allocation were correlated with annual rainfall, whereas canopy allocation and the ratio of wood/canopy allocation were not dependent on rainfall. Fruit productivity was also correlated with annual rainfall, but only in Quercus ilex. In the studied site, there were two types of forest structure: high canopy stand clearly dominated by Quercus ilex, and low canopy stand with more abundance of a tall shrub species, Phillyrea latifolia. In the tall canopy stand, the allocation to woody structures decreased in the experimental rainfall exclusion, but not the allocation to canopy. In the low canopy stand, wood allocation in Quercus ilex was very small in both control and plots with rainfall exclusion, but wood allocation in Phillyrea latifolia was even higher than that obtained in tall canopy plots, especially in the plots receiving the experimental rainfall exclusion. These results highlight likely future changes in the structure and functioning of this ecosystem induced by the decrease in water availability. A serious drop in the capacity to mitigate climate change for this Mediterranean forest can be expected, and the ability of Phillyrea latifolia to take advantage of the limited capacity to cope with drought conditions detected in Quercus ilex makes likely a forthcoming change in species dominance, especially in the low canopy stands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Growth and Allocation of Woody Biomass in Forest Trees Based on Environmental Conditions)
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Article
Impact of Precipitation and Temperature Variability of the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) on Annual Radial Increment of Selected Tree Species in Northeast China
by Sandra-Maria Hipler, Benedikt Speicher, Lars Sprengel, Hans-Peter Kahle, Heinrich Spiecker and Shuirong Wu
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1093; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101093 - 14 Oct 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5017
Abstract
A dendroclimatological approach was used to analyze growth responses of the tree species Pinus tabuliformis Carr., Larix gmelinii Rupr., Picea asperata Mast. and Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb. in a region of temperate climate in Northeast China. Annual radial increment (ARI) measurements from [...] Read more.
A dendroclimatological approach was used to analyze growth responses of the tree species Pinus tabuliformis Carr., Larix gmelinii Rupr., Picea asperata Mast. and Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb. in a region of temperate climate in Northeast China. Annual radial increment (ARI) measurements from stem cross-sections were used to identify the effects of precipitation, air temperature and standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) on tree growth under monsoon-related conditions. We analyzed the ARI of 144 trees from 49 forest stands and applied response function and moving correlation analysis as well as a linear mixed-effects model to detect climate signal in the tree-ring series. Analyses of climate-growth relations confirmed the influence of monsoon intensities on ARI, especially in the months of May to July of the current year. Particularly in times of a weak monsoon, the preceding autumn months significantly affect the ARI. The positive effect of precipitation in times of a strong monsoon and the negative effect of air temperature-indicating increased evapotranspiration-in times of a weak monsoon alternate. An increase in drought sensitivity of the ARI was found, especially after long dry periods. The results revealed for L. gmelinii the highest climate sensitivity, with ARI more strongly influenced by precipitation in the monsoon-related months, whereas Q. mongolica was most drought tolerant and recovered quicker after growth depression. P. asperata and P. tabuliformis were located in between. Our findings provide evidence for a strong influence of the periodically fluctuating monsoon intensities on the ARI of all investigated tree species. Our results support decision-making for forest management under anticipated climate change, especially for tree species selection, in the climate sensitive region of Northeast China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influences of Climate Change on Range Limits and Distribution of Trees and Forests)
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