Materials

1 pages, 384 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperCorrection

Correction: Wodecka-Dus, B. et al., Chemical and Physical Properties of the BLT4 Ultra Capacitor—A Suitable Material for Ultracapacitors Materials 2020, 13, 659

by Beata Wodecka-Dus, Malgorzata Adamczyk-Habrajska, Tomasz Goryczka and Dariusz Bochenek

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1261; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051261 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2033

Abstract

The authors wish to make the following corrections to this paper [...] Full article

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13 pages, 6230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation on the Freeze–Thaw Resistance of Steel Fibers Reinforced Rubber Concrete

by Tao Luo, Chi Zhang, Chaowei Sun, Xinchao Zheng, Yanjun Ji and Xiaosa Yuan

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1260; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051260 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3097

Abstract

The reuse of rubber in concrete results in two major opposing effects: an enhancement in durability and a reduction in mechanical strength. In order to strengthen the mechanical properties of rubber concrete, steel fibers were added in this research. The compressive strength, the [...] Read more.

The reuse of rubber in concrete results in two major opposing effects: an enhancement in durability and a reduction in mechanical strength. In order to strengthen the mechanical properties of rubber concrete, steel fibers were added in this research. The compressive strength, the four-point bending strength, the mass loss rate, and the relative dynamic elastic modulus of steel fiber reinforced rubber concrete, subjected to cyclic freezing and thawing, were tested. The effects of the content of steel fibers on the freeze–thaw resistance are discussed. The microstructure damage was captured and analyzed by Industrial Computed Tomography (ICT) scanning. Results show that the addition of 2.0% steel fibers can increase the compressive strength of rubber concrete by 26.6% if there is no freeze–thaw effect, but the strengthening effect disappears when subjected to cyclic freeze–thaw. The enhancement of steel fibers on the four-point bending strength is effective under cyclic freeze–thaw. The effect of steel fibers is positive on the mass loss rate but negative on the relative dynamic elastic modulus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Construction Materials)

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18 pages, 4192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ligno-Cellulosic Fibre Sized with Nucleating Agents Promoting Transcrystallinity in Isotactic Polypropylene Composites

by Armin Thumm, Regis Risani, Alan Dickson and Mathias Sorieul

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1259; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051259 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2719

Abstract

The mechanical performance of composites made from isotactic polypropylene reinforced with natural fibres depends on the interface between fibre and matrix, as well as matrix crystallinity. Sizing the fibre surface with nucleating agents to promote transcrystallinity is a potential route to improve the [...] Read more.

The mechanical performance of composites made from isotactic polypropylene reinforced with natural fibres depends on the interface between fibre and matrix, as well as matrix crystallinity. Sizing the fibre surface with nucleating agents to promote transcrystallinity is a potential route to improve the mechanical properties. The sizing of thermo-mechanical pulp and regenerated cellulose (Tencel™) fibres with α- and β-nucleating agents, to improve tensile strength and impact strength respectively, was assessed in this study. Polarised microscopy, electron microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that transcrystallinity was achieved and that the bulk crystallinity of the matrix was affected during processing (compounding and injection moulding). However, despite substantial changes in crystal structure in the final composite, the sizing method used did not lead to significant changes regarding the overall composite mechanical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Composite Biomaterials)

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22 pages, 7218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Examination of Electrical Characteristics for Portland Cement Mortar Frost Damage Evaluation

by Yi Wang, Tamon Ueda, Fuyuan Gong, Dawei Zhang and Zhao Wang

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1258; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051258 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2807

Abstract

Electrical measurements are promising for evaluation of frost damage of concrete, but the index is still controversial. In this paper, to propose an efficient index, various electrical characteristics were examined to correlate them with the mechanical property degradation of meso-scale mortar samples due [...] Read more.

Electrical measurements are promising for evaluation of frost damage of concrete, but the index is still controversial. In this paper, to propose an efficient index, various electrical characteristics were examined to correlate them with the mechanical property degradation of meso-scale mortar samples due to combined effects of sodium chloride and freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs). While the electrical responses of specimens were measured during FTCs, the mechanical properties were obtained from three-point bending tests after FTCs. Typical microstructural change after the damage was also analyzed by using a water absorption test. The results showed that no clear degradation tendency was observed for electrical resistivity at the lowest temperature, the activation energy or the freezing/thawing point change with the FTCs. The reduction in electrical resistivity at reference temperature has a consistent tendency with that of elastic modulus and flexural strength, thus can be an efficient index for quantitative frost damage evaluation. The change due to salt-frost damage is mainly due to the increase of connectivity rather than porosity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Porous Materials)

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22 pages, 18939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Structure-Property Dependences of Rigid PUR-PIR Foams Obtained from Marine Biomass-Based Biopolyol

by Paulina Kosmela, Aleksander Hejna, Jan Suchorzewski, Łukasz Piszczyk and Józef Tadeusz Haponiuk

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1257; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051257 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3121

Abstract

The paper describes the preparation and characterization of rigid polyurethane-polyisocyanurate (PUR-PIR) foams obtained with biopolyol synthesized in the process of liquefaction of biomass from the Baltic Sea. The obtained foams differed in the content of biopolyol in polyol mixture (0–30 wt%) and the [...] Read more.

The paper describes the preparation and characterization of rigid polyurethane-polyisocyanurate (PUR-PIR) foams obtained with biopolyol synthesized in the process of liquefaction of biomass from the Baltic Sea. The obtained foams differed in the content of biopolyol in polyol mixture (0–30 wt%) and the isocyanate index (I_ISO = 200, 250, and 300). The prepared foams were characterized in terms of processing parameters (processing times, synthesis temperature), physical (sol fraction content, apparent density) and chemical structure (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), microstructure (computer microtomography), as well as mechanical (compressive strength, dynamic mechanical analysis), and thermal properties (thermogravimetric analysis, thermal conductivity coefficient). The influence of biopolyol and I_ISO content on the above properties was determined. The addition of up to 30 wt% of biopolyol increased the reactivity of the polyol mixture, and the obtained foams showed enhanced mechanical, thermal, and insulating properties compared to foams prepared solely with petrochemical polyol. The addition of up to 30 wt% of biopolyol did not significantly affect the chemical structure and average cell size. With the increase in I_ISO, a slight decrease in processing times and mechanical properties was observed. As expected, foams with higher I_ISO exhibited a higher relative concentration of polyisocyanurate groups in their chemical structure, which was confirmed using principal component analysis (PCA). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure, Properties and Applications of Polymeric Foams)

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14 pages, 4817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Establishing a Microstructure-Related Hardness Model with Precipitate Segmentation Using Deep Learning Method

by Chan Wang, Duoqi Shi and Shaolin Li

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1256; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051256 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2817

Abstract

This paper established a microstructure-related hardness model of a polycrystalline Ni-based superalloy GH4720Li, and the sizes and area fractions of γ’ precipitates were extracted from scanning electron microscope (SEM) images using a deep learning method. The common method used to obtain morphological parameters [...] Read more.

This paper established a microstructure-related hardness model of a polycrystalline Ni-based superalloy GH4720Li, and the sizes and area fractions of γ’ precipitates were extracted from scanning electron microscope (SEM) images using a deep learning method. The common method used to obtain morphological parameters of γ’ precipitates is the thresholding method. However, this method is not suitable for distinguishing different generations of γ’ precipitates with similar gray values in SEM images, which needs many manual interventions. In this paper, we employ SEM with ATLAS (AuTomated Large Area Scanning) module to automatically and quickly detect a much wider range of microstructures. A deep learning method of U-Net is firstly applied to automatically and accurately segment different generations of γ’ precipitates and extract their parameters from the large-area SEM images. Then the obtained sizes and area fractions of γ’ precipitates are used to study the precipitate stability and microstructure-related hardness of GH4720Li alloy at long-term service temperatures. The experimental results show that primary and secondary γ’ precipitates show good stability under long-term service temperatures. Tertiary γ’ precipitates coarsen selectively, and their coarsening behavior can be predicted by the Lifshitz–Slyozov encounter modified (LSEM) model. The hardness decreases as a result of γ’ coarsening. A microstructure-related hardness model for correlating the hardness of the γ’/γ coherent structures and the microstructure is established, which can effectively predict the hardness of the alloy with different microstructures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Materials Characterization)

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18 pages, 4751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hardness and Wear Resistance of Dental Biomedical Nanomaterials in a Humid Environment with Non-Stationary Temperatures

by Daniel Pieniak, Agata Walczak, Mariusz Walczak, Krzysztof Przystupa and Agata M. Niewczas

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1255; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051255 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 3738

Abstract

This study discusses a quantitative fatigue evaluation of polymer–ceramic composites for dental restorations, i.e., commercial material (Filtek Z550) and experimental materials Ex-nano (G), Ex-flow (G). Their evaluation is based on the following descriptors: microhardness, scratch resistance, and sliding wear. In order to reflect [...] Read more.

This study discusses a quantitative fatigue evaluation of polymer–ceramic composites for dental restorations, i.e., commercial material (Filtek Z550) and experimental materials Ex-nano (G), Ex-flow (G). Their evaluation is based on the following descriptors: microhardness, scratch resistance, and sliding wear. In order to reflect factors of environmental degradation conditions, thermal fatigue was simulated with a special computer-controlled device performing algorithms of thermocycling. Specimens intended for the surface strength and wear tests underwent 10⁴ hydrothermal fatigue cycles. Thermocycling was preceded by aging, which meant immersing the specimens in artificial saliva at 37 °C for 30 days. Microhardness tests were performed with the Vickers hardness test method. The scratch test was done with a Rockwell diamond cone indenter. Sliding ball-on-disc friction tests were performed against an alumina ball in the presence of artificial saliva. A direct positive correlation was found between thermocycling fatigue and microhardness. The dominant mechanism of the wear of the experimental composites after thermocycling is the removal of fragments of the materials in the form of flakes from the friction surface (spalling). Hydrothermal fatigue is synergistic with mechanical fatigue. Full article

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11 pages, 2151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Successful Immobilization of Lanthanides Doped TiO₂ on Inert Foam for Repeatable Hydrogen Generation from Aqueous Ammonia

by Miroslava Edelmannová, Martin Reli, Lenka Matějová, Ivana Troppová, Lada Dubnová, Libor Čapek, Dana Dvoranová, Piotr Kuśtrowski and Kamila Kočí

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1254; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051254 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2519

Abstract

We describe the successful possibility of the immobilization of a photocatalyst on foam, which is beneficial from a practical point of view. An immobilized photocatalyst is possible for use in a continuous experiment and can be easily separated from the reactor after the [...] Read more.

We describe the successful possibility of the immobilization of a photocatalyst on foam, which is beneficial from a practical point of view. An immobilized photocatalyst is possible for use in a continuous experiment and can be easily separated from the reactor after the reaction concludes. Parent TiO₂, La/TiO₂, and Nd/TiO₂ photocatalysts (containing 0.1 wt.% of lanthanide) were prepared by the sol-gel method and immobilized on Al₂O₃/SiO₂ foam (VUKOPOR A) by the dip-coating method. The photocatalysts were investigated for the photocatalytic hydrogen generation from an aqueous ammonia solution under UVA light (365 nm). The evolution of hydrogen was compared with photolysis, which was limited to zero. The higher hydrogen generation was observed in the presence of 0.1 wt.% La/TiO₂ than in 0.1 wt.% Nd/TiO₂. This is, besides other things, related to the higher level of the conduction band, which was observed for 0.1 wt.% La/TiO₂. The higher conduction band’s position is more effective for hydrogen production from ammonia decomposition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue TiO2-Based Nanostructures, Composites and Hybrid Photocatalysts)

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10 pages, 5570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deformation and Failure of MXene Nanosheets

by Daiva Zeleniakiene, Gediminas Monastyreckis, Andrey Aniskevich and Paulius Griskevicius

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1253; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051253 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3595

Abstract

This work is aimed at the development of finite element models and prediction of the mechanical behavior of MXene nanosheets. Using LS-Dyna Explicit software, a finite element model was designed to simulate the nanoindentation process of a two-dimensional MXene Ti₃C₂ [...] Read more.

This work is aimed at the development of finite element models and prediction of the mechanical behavior of MXene nanosheets. Using LS-Dyna Explicit software, a finite element model was designed to simulate the nanoindentation process of a two-dimensional MXene Ti₃C₂T_z monolayer flake and to validate the material model. For the evaluation of the adhesive strength of the free-standing Ti₃C₂T_z-based film, the model comprised single-layered MXene nanosheets with a specific number of individual flakes, and the reverse engineering method with a curve fitting approach was used. The interlaminar shear strength, in-plane stiffness, and shear energy release rate of MXene film were predicted using this approach. The results of the sensitivity analysis showed that interlaminar shear strength and in-plane stiffness have the largest influence on the mechanical behavior of MXene film under tension, while the shear energy release rate mainly affects the interlaminar damage properties of nanosheets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Materials Simulation and Design)

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10 pages, 4217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Accuracy of Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy by Specimen Cooling during Measurement of Hydrogen Concentration in a High-Strength Steel

by Eric Fangnon, Evgenii Malitckii, Yuriy Yagodzinskyy and Pedro Vilaça

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051252 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3044

Abstract

Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) is a powerful method for the measurement of hydrogen concentration in metallic materials. However, hydrogen loss from metallic samples during the preparation of the measurement poses a challenge to the accuracy of the results, especially in materials with high [...] Read more.

Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) is a powerful method for the measurement of hydrogen concentration in metallic materials. However, hydrogen loss from metallic samples during the preparation of the measurement poses a challenge to the accuracy of the results, especially in materials with high diffusivity of hydrogen, like ferritic and ferritic-martensitic steels. In the present paper, the effect of specimen cooling during the experimental procedure, as a tentative to reduce the loss of hydrogen during air-lock vacuum pumping for one high-strength steel of 1400 MPa, is evaluated. The results show, at room temperature, the presence of a continuous outward hydrogen flux accompanied with the redistribution of hydrogen within the measured steel during its exposure to the air-lock vacuum chamber under continuous pumping. Cooling of the steel samples to 213 K during pumping in the air-lock vacuum chamber before TDS measurement results in an increase in the measured total hydrogen concentration at about 14%. A significant reduction in hydrogen loss and redistribution within the steel sample improves the accuracy of hydrogen concentration measurement and trapping analysis in ferritic and martensitic steels. Full article

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13 pages, 4884 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Efficient Composite Flame Retardants for Improving the Flame Retardancy, Thermal Stability, Smoke Suppression, and Mechanical Properties of EVA

by Yilin Liu, Bin Li, Miaojun Xu and Lili Wang

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1251; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051251 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2831

Abstract

Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer has been used extensively in many fields. However, EVA is flammable and releases CO gas during burning. In this work, a composite flame retardant with ammonium polyphosphate (APP), a charring–foaming agent (CFA), and a layered double hydroxide (LDH) [...] Read more.

Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer has been used extensively in many fields. However, EVA is flammable and releases CO gas during burning. In this work, a composite flame retardant with ammonium polyphosphate (APP), a charring–foaming agent (CFA), and a layered double hydroxide (LDH) containing rare-earth elements (REEs) was obtained and used to improve the flame retardancy, thermal stability, and smoke suppression for an EVA matrix. The thermal analysis showed that the maximum thermal degradation temperature of all composites increased by more than 37 °C compared with that of pure EVA. S-LaMgAl/APP/CFA/EVA, S-CeMgAl/APP/CFA/EVA, and S-NdMgAl/APP/CFA/EVA could achieve self-extinguishing behavior according to the UL-94 tests (V-0 rating). The peak heat release rate (pk-HRR) indicated that all LDHs containing REEs obviously reduced the fire strength in comparison with S-MgAl. In particular, pk-HRR of S-LaMgAl/APP/CFA/EVA, S-CeMgAl/APP/CFA/EVA and S-NdMgAl/APP/CFA/EVA were all decreased by more than 82% in comparison with pure EVA. Furthermore, the total heat release (THR), smoke production rate (SPR), and production rate of CO (COP) also decreased significantly. The average mass loss rate (AMLR) confirmed that the flame retardant exerted an effect in the condensed phase of the composites. Meanwhile, the combination of APP, CFA, and LDH containing REEs allowed the EVA matrix to maintain good mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Composites)

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13 pages, 5364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automated Control of Surface Defects on Ceramic Tiles Using 3D Image Analysis

by Andrzej Sioma

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1250; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051250 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4418

Abstract

This paper presents a method of acquisition and analysis of three-dimensional images in the task of automatic location and evaluation of defects on the surface of ceramic tiles. It presents a brief description of selected defects appearing on the surface of tiles, along [...] Read more.

This paper presents a method of acquisition and analysis of three-dimensional images in the task of automatic location and evaluation of defects on the surface of ceramic tiles. It presents a brief description of selected defects appearing on the surface of tiles, along with the analysis of their formation. The paper includes the presentation of the method of constructing a 3D image of the tile surface using the Laser Triangulation Method (LTM), along with the surface imaging parameters employed in the research. The algorithms of three-dimensional surface image analysis of ceramic tiles used in the process of image filtering and defect identification are presented. For selected defects, the method of measuring defect parameters and the method of visualization of defects on the surface are also presented. The developed method was tested on defective products to confirm its effectiveness in the field of quick defect detection in automated control systems installed on production lines. Full article

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19 pages, 1822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Validation of a Population Balance Model Describing Cement Paste Rheology

by Juan Pablo Gallo-Molina, Karel Lesage and Ingmar Nopens

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1249; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051249 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2621

Abstract

Rheology control is essential during the period in which cement and concrete pastes are encountered in the fresh state, due to the fact that it directly affects workability, initial placement and the structural performance of the hardened material. Optimizations of clinker formulations and [...] Read more.

Rheology control is essential during the period in which cement and concrete pastes are encountered in the fresh state, due to the fact that it directly affects workability, initial placement and the structural performance of the hardened material. Optimizations of clinker formulations and reductions in cement-to-water ratios induced by economic and environmental considerations have a significant effect in rheology, which invokes the need for mechanistic models capable of describing the effect of multiple relevant phenomena on the observed paste flow. In this work, the population balance framework was implemented to develop a model able to relate the transient microstructural evolution of cement pastes under typical experimental conditions with its macroscopic rheological responses. Numerical details and performance are assessed and discussed. It was found that the model is capable of reproducing experimentally observed flow curves by using measured cluster size distribution information. It is also able to predict the complex rheological characteristics typically found in cement pastes. Furthermore, a spatially resolved scheme was proposed to investigate the nature of flow inside a parallel-plates rheometer geometry with the objective of assessing the ability of the model of qualitatively predicting experimentally observed behavior and to gain insight into the effect of possible secondary flows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

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15 pages, 10241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Fire Characteristics of Concrete Beams Reinforced with Hybrid FRP Bars

by Kostiantyn Protchenko and Elżbieta Szmigiera

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1248; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051248 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3036

Abstract

One of the main concerns of experimental and numerical investigations regarding the behavior of fiber-reinforced polymer reinforced concrete (FRP-RC) members is their fire resistance to elevated temperatures and structural performance at and after fire exposure. However, the data currently available on the behavior [...] Read more.

One of the main concerns of experimental and numerical investigations regarding the behavior of fiber-reinforced polymer reinforced concrete (FRP-RC) members is their fire resistance to elevated temperatures and structural performance at and after fire exposure. However, the data currently available on the behavior of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced members related to elevated temperatures are scarce, specifically relating to the strength capacity of beams after being subjected to elevated temperatures. This paper investigates the residual strength capacity of beams strengthened internally with various (FRP) reinforcement types after being subjected to high temperatures, reflecting the conditions of a fire. The testing was made for concrete beams reinforced with three different types of FRP bars: (i) basalt-FRP (BFRP), (ii) hybrid FRP with carbon and basalt fibers (HFRP) and (iii) nano-hybrid FRP (nHFRP), with modification of the epoxy matrix of the rebar. Tested beams were first loaded at 50% of their ultimate strength capacity, then unloaded before being heated in a furnace and allowed to cool, and finally reloaded flexurally until failure. The results show an atypical behavior observed for HFRP bars and nHFRP bars reinforced beams, where after a certain temperature threshold the deflection began to decrease. The authors suggest that this phenomenon is connected with the thermal expansion coefficient of the carbon fibers present in HFRP and nHFRP bars and therefore creep can appear in those fibers, which causes an effect of “prestressing” of the beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber Reinforced Polymers for Structural Strengthening)

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16 pages, 8159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gain-Enhanced Metamaterial Absorber-Loaded Monopole Antenna for Reduced Radar Cross-Section and Back Radiation

by Heijun Jeong, Yeonju Kim, Manos M. Tentzeris and Sungjoon Lim

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1247; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051247 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3581

Abstract

This paper proposes a gain-enhanced metamaterial (MM) absorber-loaded monopole antenna that reduces both radar cross-section and back radiation. To demonstrate the proposed idea, we designed a wire monopole antenna and an MM absorber. The MM absorber comprised lumped elements of subwavelength unit cells [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a gain-enhanced metamaterial (MM) absorber-loaded monopole antenna that reduces both radar cross-section and back radiation. To demonstrate the proposed idea, we designed a wire monopole antenna and an MM absorber. The MM absorber comprised lumped elements of subwavelength unit cells and achieved 90% absorbance bandwidth from 2.42–2.65 GHz. For low-profile configurations, the MM absorber was loaded parallel to and 10 mm from the monopole antenna, corresponding to 0.09 λ₀ at 2.7 GHz. The monopole antenna resonated at 2.7 GHz with a 3.71 dBi peak gain and 2.65 GHz and 6.46 dBi peak gain, before and after loading the MM absorber, respectively. Therefore, including the MM absorber increased peak gain by 2.7 dB and reduced back radiation by 15 dB. The proposed antenna radar cross-section was reduced by 2 dB compared with a monopole antenna with an artificial magnetic conductor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superconducting and Quantum Metamaterials, Metacircuits, and Metadevices)

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16 pages, 3200 KiB

Open AccessReview

Devulcanization Technologies for Recycling of Tire-Derived Rubber: A Review

by Erich Markl and Maximilian Lackner

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051246 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 10486

Abstract

In general, composite materials are difficult to recycle. Tires belong to this class of materials. On top, one of their main constitutents, vulcanized rubber, is as elastomer, which cannot be remolten and hence is particularly challenging to put to a new use. Today, [...] Read more.

In general, composite materials are difficult to recycle. Tires belong to this class of materials. On top, one of their main constitutents, vulcanized rubber, is as elastomer, which cannot be remolten and hence is particularly challenging to put to a new use. Today, the main end-of-life routes of tires and other rubber products are landfilling, incineration in e.g., cement plants, and grinding to a fine powder, generating huge quantities and indicating a lack of sustainable recycling of this valuable material. True feedstock recycling is not feasible for complex mixtures such as tires, but devulcanization can be done to reactivate the cross-linked polymer for material recycling in novel rubber products. Devulcanization, i.e., the breaking up of sulfur bonds by chemical, thermophysical, or biological means, is a promising route that has been investigated for more than 50 years. This review article presents an update on the state-of-the art in rubber devulcanization. The article addresses established devulcanization technologies and novel processes described in the scientific and patent literatures. On the one hand, tires have become high-tech products, where the simultaneous improvement of wet traction, rolling resistance, and abrasion resistance (the so-called “magic triangle”) is hard to achieve. On the other hand, recycling and sustainable end-of-life uses are becoming more and more important. It is expected that the public discussion of environmental impacts of thermoplastics will soon spill over to thermosets and elastomers. Therefore, the industry needs to develop and market solutions proactively. Every year, approximately 40 million tons of tires are discarded. Through the devulcanization of end-of-life tires (ELT), it is possible to produce new raw materials with good mechanical properties and a superior environmental footprint over virgin products. The devulcanization process has become an interesting technology that is able to support the circular economy concept. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Rubber Recycling)

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26 pages, 4401 KiB

Open AccessReview

Potential of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Resources in Nanocellulose Hydrogel Production for Versatile Applications: A Review

by Farah Nadia Mohammad Padzil, Seng Hua Lee, Zuriyati Mohamed Asa’ari Ainun, Ching Hao Lee and Luqman Chuah Abdullah

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1245; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051245 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 7221

Abstract

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) is considered the cheapest natural fiber with good properties and exists abundantly in Malaysia. It has great potential as an alternative main raw material to substitute woody plants. On the other hand, the well-known polymeric hydrogel has [...] Read more.

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) is considered the cheapest natural fiber with good properties and exists abundantly in Malaysia. It has great potential as an alternative main raw material to substitute woody plants. On the other hand, the well-known polymeric hydrogel has gathered a lot of interest due to its three-dimensional (3D) cross-linked network with high porosity. However, some issues regarding its performance like poor interfacial connectivity and mechanical strength have been raised, hence nanocellulose has been introduced. In this review, the plantation of oil palm in Malaysia is discussed to show the potential of OPEFB as a nanocellulose material in hydrogel production. Nanocellulose can be categorized into three nano-structured celluloses, which differ in the processing method. The most popular nanocellulose hydrogel processing methods are included in this review. The 3D printing method is taking the lead in current hydrogel production due to its high complexity and the need for hygiene products. Some of the latest advanced applications are discussed to show the high commercialization potential of nanocellulose hydrogel products. The authors also considered the challenges and future direction of nanocellulose hydrogel. OPEFB has met the requirements of the marketplace and product value chains as nanocellulose raw materials in hydrogel applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology)

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15 pages, 6760 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Plasma Fabrication and SERS Functionality of Gold Crowned Silicon Submicrometer Pillars

by Paola Pellacani, Carlo Morasso, Silvia Picciolini, Dario Gallach, Lucia Fornasari, Franco Marabelli and Miguel Manso Silvan

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1244; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051244 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3744

Abstract

Sequential plasma processes combined with specific lithographic methods allow for the fabrication of advanced material structures. In the present work, we used self-assembled colloidal monolayers as lithographic structures for the conformation of ordered Si submicrometer pillars by reactive ion etching. We explored different [...] Read more.

Sequential plasma processes combined with specific lithographic methods allow for the fabrication of advanced material structures. In the present work, we used self-assembled colloidal monolayers as lithographic structures for the conformation of ordered Si submicrometer pillars by reactive ion etching. We explored different discharge conditions to optimize the Si pillar geometry. Selected structures were further decorated with gold by conventional sputtering, prior to colloidal monolayer lift-off. The resulting structures consist of a gold crown, that is, a cylindrical coating on the edge of the Si pillar and a cavity on top. We analysed the Au structures in terms of electronic properties by using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) prior to and after post-processing with thermal annealing at 300 °C and/or interaction with a gold etchant solution (KI). The angular dependent analysis of the plasmonic properties was studied with Fourier transformed UV-vis measurements. Certain conditions were selected to perform a surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) evaluation of these platforms with two model dyes, prior to confirming the potential interest for a well-resolved analysis of filtered blood plasma. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plasma Surface Engineering of Materials)

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19 pages, 2941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effective Medium Theory for the Elastic Properties of Composite Materials with Various Percolation Thresholds

by Andrei A. Snarskii, Mikhail Shamonin and Pavel Yuskevich

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1243; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051243 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3482

Abstract

It is discussed that the classical effective medium theory for the elastic properties of random heterogeneous materials is not congruous with the effective medium theory for the electrical conductivity. In particular, when describing the elastic and electro-conductive properties of a strongly inhomogeneous two-phase [...] Read more.

It is discussed that the classical effective medium theory for the elastic properties of random heterogeneous materials is not congruous with the effective medium theory for the electrical conductivity. In particular, when describing the elastic and electro-conductive properties of a strongly inhomogeneous two-phase composite material, the steep rise of effective parameters occurs at different concentrations. To achieve the logical concordance between the cross-property relations, a modification of the effective medium theory of the elastic properties is introduced. It is shown that the qualitative conclusions of the theory do not change, while a possibility of describing a broader class of composite materials with various percolation thresholds arises. It is determined under what conditions there is an elasticity theory analogue of the Dykhne formula for the effective conductivity. The theoretical results are supported by known experiments and show improvement over the existing approach. The introduction of the theory with the variable percolation threshold paves the way for describing the magnetorheological properties of magnetoactive elastomers. A similar approach has been recently used for the description of magneto-dielectric and magnetic properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior of Composite Materials)

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17 pages, 8546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical, Thermal and Rheological Properties of Polyethylene-Based Composites Filled with Micrometric Aluminum Powder

by Olga Mysiukiewicz, Paulina Kosmela, Mateusz Barczewski and Aleksander Hejna

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1242; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051242 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3418

Abstract

Investigations related to polymer/metal composites are often limited to the analysis of the electrical and thermal conductivity of the materials. The presented study aims to analyze the impact of aluminum (Al) filler content (from 1 to 20 wt%) on the rarely investigated properties [...] Read more.

Investigations related to polymer/metal composites are often limited to the analysis of the electrical and thermal conductivity of the materials. The presented study aims to analyze the impact of aluminum (Al) filler content (from 1 to 20 wt%) on the rarely investigated properties of composites based on the high-density polyethylene (HDPE) matrix. The crystalline structure, rheological (melt flow index and oscillatory rheometry), thermal (differential scanning calorimetry), as well as static (tensile tests, hardness, rebound resilience) and dynamic (dynamical mechanical analysis) mechanical properties of composites were investigated. The incorporation of 1 and 2 wt% of aluminum filler resulted in small enhancements of mechanical properties, while loadings of 5 and 10 wt% provided materials with a similar performance to neat HDPE. Such results were supported by the lack of disturbances in the rheological behavior of composites. The presented results indicate that a significant content of aluminum filler may be introduced into the HDPE matrix without additional pre-treatment and does not cause the deterioration of composites’ performance, which should be considered beneficial when engineering PE/metal composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Development and Functionality)

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22 pages, 4462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Adsorption-Interaction Mechanism of Pb(II) at Surface of Silk Fibroin Protein-Derived Hybrid Nanoflower Adsorbent

by Xiang Li, Yan Xiong, Ming Duan, Haiqin Wan, Jun Li, Can Zhang, Sha Qin, Shenwen Fang and Run Zhang

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1241; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051241 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3024

Abstract

For further the understanding of the adsorption mechanism of heavy metal ions on the surface of protein-inorganic hybrid nanoflowers, a novel protein-derived hybrid nanoflower was prepared to investigate the adsorption behavior and reveal the function of organic and inorganic parts on the surface [...] Read more.

For further the understanding of the adsorption mechanism of heavy metal ions on the surface of protein-inorganic hybrid nanoflowers, a novel protein-derived hybrid nanoflower was prepared to investigate the adsorption behavior and reveal the function of organic and inorganic parts on the surface of nanoflowers in the adsorption process in this study. Silk fibroin (SF)-derived and copper-based protein-inorganic hybrid nanoflowers of SF@Cu-NFs were prepared through self-assembly. The product was characterized and applied to adsorption of heavy metal ion of Pb(II). With Chinese peony flower-like morphology, the prepared SF@Cu-NFs showed ordered three-dimensional structure and exhibited excellent efficiency for Pb(II) removal. On one hand, the adsorption performance of SF@Cu-HNFs for Pb(II) removal was evaluated through systematical thermodynamic and adsorption kinetics investigation. The good fittings of Langmuir and pseudo-second-order models indicated the monolayer adsorption and high capacity of about 2000 mg g⁻¹ of Pb(II) on SF@Cu-NFs. Meanwhile, the negative values of

Δ_{r} G_{m (T)}^{θ}

and

Δ_{r} H_{m}^{θ}

proved the spontaneous and exothermic process of Pb(II) adsorption. On the other hand, the adsorption mechanism of SF@Cu-HNFs for Pb(II) removal was revealed with respect to its individual organic and inorganic component. Organic SF protein was designated as responsible ‘stamen’ adsorption site for fast adsorption of Pb(II), which was originated from multiple coordinative interaction by numerous amide groups; inorganic Cu₃(PO₄)₂ crystal was designated as responsible ‘petal’ adsorption site for slow adsorption of Pb(II), which was restricted from weak coordinative interaction by strong ion bond of Cu(II). With only about 10% weight content, SF protein was proven to play a key factor for SF@Cu-HNFs formation and have a significant effect on Pb(II) treatment. By fabricating SF@Cu-HNFs hybrid nanoflowers derived from SF protein, this work not only successfully provides insights on its adsorption performance and interaction mechanism for Pb(II) removal, but also provides a new idea for the preparation of adsorption materials for heavy metal ions in environmental sewage in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface and Interface Engineering for Organic Device Applications)

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10 pages, 20821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of CeO₂ Nanoparticles on Interface of Cu/Al₂O₃ Ceramic Clad Composites

by YaBo Fu, HaoNan Chen, ZhiQiang Cao and YanQiu Huo

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1240; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051240 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2365

Abstract

Cu/Al₂O₃ ceramic clad composites are widely used in electronic packaging and electrical contacts. However, the conductivity and strength of the interfacial layer are not fit for the demands. So CeO₂ nanoparticles 24.3 nm in size, coated on Al₂ [...] Read more.

Cu/Al₂O₃ ceramic clad composites are widely used in electronic packaging and electrical contacts. However, the conductivity and strength of the interfacial layer are not fit for the demands. So CeO₂ nanoparticles 24.3 nm in size, coated on Al₂O₃ ceramic, promote a novel CeO₂–Cu₂O–Cu system to improve the interfacial bonded strength. Results show that the atom content of O is increased to approximately 30% with the addition of CeO₂ nanoparticles compared with the atom content without CeO₂ in the interfacial layer of Cu/Al₂O₃ ceramic clad composites. CeO₂ nanoparticles coated on the surface of Al₂O₃ ceramics can easily diffuse into the metallic Cu layer. CeO₂ nanoparticles can accelerate to form the eutectic liquid of Cu₂O–Cu as they have strong functions of storing and releasing O at an Ar pressure of 0.12 MPa. The addition of CeO₂ nanoparticles is beneficial for promoting the bonded strength of the Cu/Al₂O₃ ceramic clad composites. The bonded strength of the interface coated with nanoparticles of CeO₂ is increased to 20.8% compared with that without CeO₂; moreover, the electric conductivity on the side of metallic Cu is 95% IACS. The study is of great significance for improving properties of Cu/Al₂O₃ ceramic clad composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology)

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12 pages, 2330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydraulic Activity and Microstructure Analysis of High-Titanium Slag

by Xinkai Hou, Dan Wang, Yiming Shi, Haitao Guo and Yingying He

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1239; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051239 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2514

Abstract

To explain the relationship between the hydration activity of high-titanium slag and its microstructure, the hydration activity of high-titanium slag was determined, then the mineral phase and microstructure characteristics of high-titanium slag glass phase and blast furnace slag were investigated using a series [...] Read more.

To explain the relationship between the hydration activity of high-titanium slag and its microstructure, the hydration activity of high-titanium slag was determined, then the mineral phase and microstructure characteristics of high-titanium slag glass phase and blast furnace slag were investigated using a series of analytical methods, which contain X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electronic Microscope (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR). The results showed that in slow-cooled high-titanium slag, the hydration inert mineral content was about 98%, and the glass phase content was less than 2%, hence, the hydration activity of slow-cooled high titanium slag accounted for less than 25% of that of the blast furnace slag. The content of the glass phase in water-quenched high-titanium slag was 98%, but the microstructure of the glass phase was very different from that of the blast furnace slag. The glass phase of high-titanium slag has stable forms, which are TiO₄⁴⁻ monomers, chain or sheet units O–Ti–O, and a small amount of 6-coordination Ti⁴⁺. The Ti makes the SiO₄ tetrahedron in a glass phase network not only a monosilicate, but more stable forms of disilicates and chain middle groups also appeared. The relative bridge oxygen number increased to 0.2, hence, the hydration activity of water-quenched high-titanium slag took up less than 37% of that of the blast furnace slag. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

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12 pages, 5869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Scanning Electron Microscopy Observation of Crack Initiation and Propagation in Hydroxide Films Formed by Steam Coating on Aluminum-Alloy Sheets

by Hongmei Li, Naoki Takata, Makoto Kobashi and Ai Serizawa

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1238; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051238 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2855

Abstract

Hydroxide film was formed on 6061 Al-alloy (Al-1.00Mg-0.62Si(wt.%)) sheets by steam coating with the temperature of 220 °C for 24 h. During bending test of the coated specimens, the crack initiation and propagation processes in the hydroxide film were investigated using in situ [...] Read more.

Hydroxide film was formed on 6061 Al-alloy (Al-1.00Mg-0.62Si(wt.%)) sheets by steam coating with the temperature of 220 °C for 24 h. During bending test of the coated specimens, the crack initiation and propagation processes in the hydroxide film were investigated using in situ SEM observations. The hydroxide film formed exhibited a dual-layer structure composed of an inner amorphous layer and an outer polycrystalline γ-AlO(OH)-phase layer. On the compressively strained surface, lateral cracks are preferentially initiated inside the inner amorphous layer, and propagate either inside this layer or on its interface with the outer γ-AlO(OH) layer. Digital image correlation analyses of the in situ observed SEM images suggested that the concentrated tensile strain along the surface normal localized at some parts of the amorphous layer could contribute to the crack initiation. On the tensile-strained surface, a number of cracks were initiated inside the inner amorphous layer along the surface normal and propagate into the outer γ-AlO(OH) layer. No cracks were found along the interface of the amorphous layer with the Al-alloy substrate. As a result, the anticorrosion hydroxide film adhered on the Al sheet after bending deformation. Such strong adhesion contributes to the excellent corrosion resistance of the Al-alloy parts provided by the steam coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion and Corrosion Protection for Light Metals/Alloys)

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16 pages, 7478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Styrene–Maleic Anhydride Copolymer Compatibilized Polyamide 66/Poly (Phenylene Ether) Blends: Effect of Maleic Anhydride Concentration and Copolymer Content

by Alper Aksit, Teresa Menzel, Merve Aksit and Volker Altstädt

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1237; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051237 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3939

Abstract

Polyamide 66 (PA66)/poly (2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene ether) (PPE) blends with a ratio of 50/50 (w/w) were produced by a twin-screw compounder. The immiscible blends were compatibilized using two different styrene–maleic anhydride copolymers (SMA) with a low (SMA_low) and a high (SMA_high) [...] Read more.

Polyamide 66 (PA66)/poly (2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene ether) (PPE) blends with a ratio of 50/50 (w/w) were produced by a twin-screw compounder. The immiscible blends were compatibilized using two different styrene–maleic anhydride copolymers (SMA) with a low (SMA_low) and a high (SMA_high) maleic anhydride (MA) concentration of 8 and 25 wt%, respectively. Furthermore, the SMA content was varied from 0 to 10 wt%. The influence of MA concentration and SMA content on the morphological and thermomechanical properties of PA66/PPE blends was investigated. Herein, we established correlations between the interfacial activity of the SMA with blend morphology and corresponding tensile properties. A droplet-sea to co-continuous morphology transition was shown by scanning electron microscopy to occur between 1.25 and 5 wt% in the case of SMA_high. For SMA_low, the transition started from 7.5 wt% and was still ongoing at 10 wt%. It was found that SMA_low with 10 wt% content enhanced the tensile strength (10%) and elongation at break (70%) of PA66/PPE blends. This improvement can be explained by the strong interfacial interaction of SMA_low within the blend system, which features the formation of nanoemulsion morphology, as shown by transmission electron microscopy. Very small interdomain distances hinder matrix deformations, which forces debonding and cohesive failure of the PPE phase as a “weaker” main deformation mechanism. Due to a lack of interfacial activity, the mechanical properties of the blends with SMA_high were not improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends: Processing, Morphology, and Properties)

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20 pages, 12979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tribological Performance of Micro-Groove Tools of Improving Tool Wear Resistance in Turning AISI 304 Process

by Jinxing Wu, Gang Zhan, Lin He, Zhongfei Zou, Tao Zhou and Feilong Du

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1236; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051236 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2299

Abstract

AISI 304 has good physical and chemical properties and thus is widely used. However, due to the low thermal diffusivity, the cutting temperature of AISI 304 is high accelerating the wear of the tool. Therefore, tool wear is a major problem in machining [...] Read more.

AISI 304 has good physical and chemical properties and thus is widely used. However, due to the low thermal diffusivity, the cutting temperature of AISI 304 is high accelerating the wear of the tool. Therefore, tool wear is a major problem in machining hard cutting materials. In this study, we developed a new type of micro-groove tool whose rake surface was distributed with micro-groove by powder metallurgy based on the finite element temperature field morphology. We compared the wear of the proposed micro-groove tool with an untreated one by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and an X-ray energy spectrum. The abrasive, adhesive, and oxidation wear of the rake and the flank face of the micro-groove tool were lower than that of the untreated one. Due to the micro-groove on the rake face of the tool, the contact length between the tool and chip was reduced, leaving more extension space. Furthermore, chip extrusion deformation was avoided, and the energy caused by chip deformation was reduced. After 70 min of cutting, the counterpart reached the specified wear amount while the main cutting force, the feed resistance, and the cutting depth resistance of the proposed micro-groove tool were reduced by 16.1%, 33.9%, and 40.1%, respectively. With regard to steady state, the cutting temperature was reduced by 17.2% and the wear width of the flank face was reduced by 36.7%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Materials Characterization)

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19 pages, 816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on an Absorbing Layer Suitable for a Noise-Reducing Two-Layer Pavement

by Sabine Faßbender and Markus Oeser

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1235; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051235 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2696

Abstract

A polyurethane-based rubber-modified layer within a road superstructure leads to absorption of traffic emissions. Noise emissions have quite a negative effect on society, as they lead to high stress levels and health risks for people. Therefore, constructional methods of noise-reducing road layers have [...] Read more.

A polyurethane-based rubber-modified layer within a road superstructure leads to absorption of traffic emissions. Noise emissions have quite a negative effect on society, as they lead to high stress levels and health risks for people. Therefore, constructional methods of noise-reducing road layers have been developed before. This research paper focuses on the questions whether the existing noise-reducing road constructions, which have a low durability, can be optimized in terms of a longer duration while simultaneously maintaining the noise-reducing effects. Within this research, a large parametric study contributed to an optimal solution of a noise-reducing and durable layer. We found that noise absorption is mainly dependent of the void content of the pavement and its flexibility. Also, a result is that the durability of a road layer is based on the properties of the binder as well as the composition of the mixture, i.e., the grading curve. As we used polyurethane binders within our mixtures, which have a low dependency on regular environmental temperatures after their complete chemical reaction, we can imply a low temperature dependence of the entire polyurethane asphalt mixture. Based on these results, the construction of a noise-reducing and durable road layer is a great solution. The application of such road layers leads to lower traffic emissions at major hotspots. These might be urban highways, where the infrastructure is too tight to build noise barriers, enclosures or tunnels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Asphalt Road Paving Materials)

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15 pages, 2452 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Analytical Mini-Review on the Compression Strength of Rubberized Concrete as a Function of the Amount of Recycled Tires Crumb Rubber

by Luca Lavagna, Roberto Nisticò, Matteo Sarasso and Matteo Pavese

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1234; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051234 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3814

Abstract

Since waste tires constitute a serious environmental concern, several studies are devoted to the use of finely divided recycled rubber for the production of rubberized concrete by partial substitution of the mineral aggregate fraction. The introduction of rubber into concrete presents several advantages [...] Read more.

Since waste tires constitute a serious environmental concern, several studies are devoted to the use of finely divided recycled rubber for the production of rubberized concrete by partial substitution of the mineral aggregate fraction. The introduction of rubber into concrete presents several advantages (e.g., improvement of toughness and thermal/electrical/acoustic insulation capacities). Unfortunately, the addition of a high content of rubber into concrete causes an important loss of mechanical resistance of the final composite. In this context, several scientific studies are devoted to investigate the best technical solutions for favoring the interfacial adhesion between rubber and cement paste, but the interpretation of the literature is often misleading. To overcome this issue, the metadata extrapolated from the single scientific works were critically re-analyzed, forming reference diagrams where the variability fields of the different rubber concrete formulations (in terms of mechanical responses as a function of the rubber content) were defined and the best performances discussed. This study evidenced the twofold role of reference diagrams, able in both presenting the data in an unambiguous manner (for a successful comparison) and providing the guidelines for future works in this research field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Materials for Concrete and Other Composites)

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22 pages, 7086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Insights into Concrete Flow-Regimes Subject to Shear-Induced Particle Migration (SIPM) during Pumping

by Shirin Fataei, Egor Secrieru and Viktor Mechtcherine

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051233 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 2975

Abstract

In this paper, the authors have focused on shear-induced particle migration (SIPM), its effect on concrete flow patterns, and lubricating layer formation during pumping. For this purpose, various volume-fractions ϕ of aggregates were selected. The particle migration was analyzed by applying two methods: [...] Read more.

In this paper, the authors have focused on shear-induced particle migration (SIPM), its effect on concrete flow patterns, and lubricating layer formation during pumping. For this purpose, various volume-fractions ϕ of aggregates were selected. The particle migration was analyzed by applying two methods: sampling hardened concrete exposed to pumping and performing X-ray microcomputed tomography (μCT) and image analysis to determine the thickness of the lubricating layer due to SIPM. The results indicate that the first approach is unsuitable due to the nearly equal molecular density of particles and matrix. The second approach indicated that the actual thickness of the lubricating layer depends on the discharge rate as well as on ϕ and viscosity of concrete bulk; hence, it cannot be defined as a constant parameter for all concrete mixtures. Additionally, the concrete pipe-flow pattern, i.e., plug versus shear flow, was captured and studied while considering pumping pressure and discharge rate. It was concluded that particle migration is essential in the cases of both flowable and very flowable concretes with a high volume-fraction of solids. The changes in rheological properties caused by SIPM are severe enough to influence the definition of the flow pattern as plug or shear and the discharge rate of pumped concrete as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheology of Reactive, Multiscale, Multiphase Construction Materials)

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12 pages, 4112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Oxide Particles on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of the 45 Carbon Structural Steel

by Bin Chen, Jianhang Feng, Yongzhen Zhai, Zhonghua Sun, Hongbo Liu, Yanfei Jiang, Jun He and Huifen Peng

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1232; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051232 - 09 Mar 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2228

Abstract

Striking difference in density between the oxide and the steel results in difficulty in preparing oxide dispersion strengthened steel with large size parts or materials. In this research, Al₂O₃ and TiO₂ particles were initially milled with the 20 steel, [...] Read more.

Striking difference in density between the oxide and the steel results in difficulty in preparing oxide dispersion strengthened steel with large size parts or materials. In this research, Al₂O₃ and TiO₂ particles were initially milled with the 20 steel, and then the mixture was heated to a molten state to form a master alloy, which was used as a raw material for further preparation of the object steel. It was found that homogeneous distribution of the oxide particles was obtained in the mass production of the steel. Moreover, the obtained 45 carbon structural steel presents fine microstructures, together with improved mechanical properties, especially the impact ductility. This should be attributable to the transformation from the introduced micro-size oxide particles to the nano ones, which act as heterogeneous nucleants that play an important role in grain refinement and dispersion strengthening for the steel, during the remelting of the master alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Composites)

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