Energies

25 pages, 1711 KiB

Open AccessReview

Methods and Tools for PV and EV Hosting Capacity Determination in Low Voltage Distribution Networks—A Review

by Vincent Umoh, Innocent Davidson, Abayomi Adebiyi and Unwana Ekpe

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3609; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083609 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2484

The increasing demand for electricity and the need for environmentally friendly transportation systems has resulted in the proliferation of solar photovoltaic (PV) generators and electric vehicle (EV) charging within the low voltage (LV) distribution network. This high penetration of PV and EV charging [...] Read more.

The increasing demand for electricity and the need for environmentally friendly transportation systems has resulted in the proliferation of solar photovoltaic (PV) generators and electric vehicle (EV) charging within the low voltage (LV) distribution network. This high penetration of PV and EV charging can cause power quality challenges, hence the need for hosting capacity (HC) studies to estimate the maximum allowable connections. Although studies and reviews are abundant on the HC of PV and EV charging available in the literature, there is a lack of reviews on HC studies that cover both PV and EVs together. This paper fills this research gap by providing a detailed review of five commonly used methods for quantifying HC including deterministic, time series, stochastic, optimization, and streamlined methods. This paper comprehensively reviews the HC concept, methods, and tools, covering both PV and EV charging based on a survey of state-of-the-art literature published within the last five years (2017–2022). Voltage magnitude, thermal limit, and loading of lines, cables, and transformers are the main performance indices considered in most HC studies. Full article

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18 pages, 4750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combustion of Lean Methane/Propane Mixtures with an Active Prechamber Engine in Terms of Various Fuel Distribution

by Ireneusz Pielecha and Filip Szwajca

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3608; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083608 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1312

Abstract

The possibilities for reducing the fuel consumption of internal combustion engines focus mainly on developing combustion systems, as one such solution is a two-stage combustion system using jet ignition. The combustion of gaseous mixtures with a high excess air ratio leads to an [...] Read more.

The possibilities for reducing the fuel consumption of internal combustion engines focus mainly on developing combustion systems, as one such solution is a two-stage combustion system using jet ignition. The combustion of gaseous mixtures with a high excess air ratio leads to an increase in overall efficiency and a reduction in the emissions of selected exhaust components. In such a convention, gas combustion studies were conducted in the methane/propane configuration. Using an active prechamber where spark plugs were placed and direct injection through a check valve, the fuel dose was minimized into the prechamber. The tests were conducted for a constant center of combustion (CoC). The combustion process in both the prechamber and main chamber was analyzed using a test stand equipped with a 0.5 dm³ single-cylinder engine. The engine was controlled by varying the fuel supply to the prechamber and main chamber in excess air ratio λ = 1.3–1.8. The study analyzed thermodynamic indices such as the combustion pressure in both chambers, based on which the SoC in both chambers, the rate and amount of heat released, AI05, AI90 and, consequently, the indicated efficiency were determined. Based on the results, it was found that the use of CH₄/C₃H₈ combination degraded the thermodynamic indicators of combustion more than using only the base gas (methane). In addition, the stability of the engine’s operation was decreased. The advantage of using propane for the prechamber is to obtain more beneficial ecological indicators. For the single-fuel system, a maximum indicated efficiency of more than 40% was obtained, while with the use of propane for the prechamber, a maximum of 39.3% was achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue NOx, PM and CO₂ Emission Reduction in Fuel Combustion Processes)

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19 pages, 8001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Effect of Initial Delamination on Tensile Behavior of Offshore Wind Turbine Blade Spar Cap

by Wen Xin, Hui Li, Xiaolong Lu and Bo Zhou

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3607; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083607 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1110

Abstract

Delamination damage to spar caps seriously endangers the operation safety of offshore wind turbines. The effect of initial delamination of various depths and areas on the ultimate tensile load of laminates is studied based on experiments and numerical simulation, and an effective method [...] Read more.

Delamination damage to spar caps seriously endangers the operation safety of offshore wind turbines. The effect of initial delamination of various depths and areas on the ultimate tensile load of laminates is studied based on experiments and numerical simulation, and an effective method for predicting the residual tensile strength of laminates with high thickness is proposed. Three groups of initial delamination specimens with different characteristics were fabricated, and static displacement tensile tests were carried out. An accurate three-dimensional numerical analysis model was established, and the results were in good agreement with the experimental values, with the overall error of the failure load being less than 6%. Furthermore, a numerical model for a 20-ply high-thickness spar cap laminate was established to predict the effect of delamination on tensile strength. The results showed that, for the same depth of initial delamination, the difference in delamination area had little influence on the tensile strength. The dangerous locations of delamination were at the shallow surface and at the ratio of 0.3–0.4 in the thickness direction, and the maximum decrease in tensile strength was 14.86%; meanwhile, it was found that delamination on the middle surface had no significant effect on tensile strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theoretical and Technical Challenges in Offshore Wind Power)

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18 pages, 2120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Contracts-Based Demand Response Bidding Mechanism to Enhance the Load Aggregator Model in Thailand

by Anchisa Pinyo and Athikom Bangviwat

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3606; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083606 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1432

Abstract

In 2022, Thailand’s Demand Response (DR) business model was shifting from the Traditional Utility (TU) model to the Load Aggregator (LA) model in accordance with Thailand’s smart grid master plan. This research studied the current demand response model and mechanism to draw possible [...] Read more.

In 2022, Thailand’s Demand Response (DR) business model was shifting from the Traditional Utility (TU) model to the Load Aggregator (LA) model in accordance with Thailand’s smart grid master plan. This research studied the current demand response model and mechanism to draw possible gaps in operations. This research deals with the data system owned by the individual load aggregator. The load aggregators collect meter data and evaluate demand adaptations before sending the results to claim compensation on behalf of their customers. This approach lacks transparency and facilitates distortion of the facts. Hence, this research introduces the data execution by smart contracts and data records on the blockchain that enhance transparent data sharing among multiple parties and maintain data integrity. Moreover, the proposed bidding algorithm allows customers to offer an expected price under the maximum incentive payment determined by the avoided costs of running the peaking power plants. Hence, the bidding helps reflect the DR operation costs on the customer side and control the budget for incentive payments. This study emphasized the smart contracts and decentralized application layer, so the public blockchain is a reasonable network for the test. However, implementation in real cases using the public blockchain requires careful considerations, such as network fees, transaction speeds, and the security of smart contract codes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain, IoT and Smart Grids Challenges for Energy)

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19 pages, 5462 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Different Types of Solar Cell Materials Employed in Bifacial Solar Photovoltaic Panel

by Muthu Vimala, Geetha Ramadas, Muthaiya Perarasi, Athikesavan Muthu Manokar and Ravishankar Sathyamurthy

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3605; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083605 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2903

Abstract

Conventionally accessible silicon solar cells experience two major drawbacks, such as reduced efficiency and increased fabrication costs. The prospects for the reduction in the cost of the photovoltaic form of energy conversion are bifacial solar cells. Bifacial solar cells show potential opportunity in [...] Read more.

Conventionally accessible silicon solar cells experience two major drawbacks, such as reduced efficiency and increased fabrication costs. The prospects for the reduction in the cost of the photovoltaic form of energy conversion are bifacial solar cells. Bifacial solar cells show potential opportunity in reducing the cost of solar energy conversion when analyzed with respect to monofacial cells. The bifacial solar cells exploit sunlight occurrence on both sides of the cell more efficiently. Bifacial-based solar photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that increases the generation of electrical energy per square meter of PV module through the utilization of light absorption from the albedo. This technology can generally be categorized based on the type of solar cell material and the fabrication technique. PV devices are classified as a silicon-based, thin film, organic, and advanced nano PV. This paper takes a second look at some recent initiatives and significant issues in enhancing the efficiency of bifacial solar cells from material sciences and chemical composition aspects. From this review, it is concluded that screen-printed solar cells have produced a maximum efficiency of 22%. Additionally, triode structure single-crystalline cells produced a maximum front side efficiency of 21.3% and rear side efficiency of 19.8%. Considering the recycling of solar panels, organic solar panels can be developed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Review Papers in Energy and Buildings)

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13 pages, 2743 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Challenges of Industrial-Scale Testing Infrastructure for Green Hydrogen Technologies

by Jonas Bollmann, Sudhagar Pitchaimuthu and Moritz F. Kühnel

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3604; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083604 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2406

Abstract

Green hydrogen is set to become the energy carrier of the future, provided that production technologies such as electrolysis and solar water splitting can be scaled to global dimensions. Testing these hydrogen technologies on the MW scale requires the development of dedicated new [...] Read more.

Green hydrogen is set to become the energy carrier of the future, provided that production technologies such as electrolysis and solar water splitting can be scaled to global dimensions. Testing these hydrogen technologies on the MW scale requires the development of dedicated new test facilities for which there is no precedent. This perspective highlights the challenges to be met on the path to implementing a test facility for large-scale water electrolysis, photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic water splitting and aims to serve as a much-needed blueprint for future test facilities based on the authors’ own experience in establishing the Hydrogen Lab Leuna. Key aspects to be considered are the electricity and utility requirements of the devices under testing, the analysis of the produced H₂ and O₂ and the safety regulations for handling large quantities of H₂. Choosing the right location is crucial not only for meeting these device requirements, but also for improving financial viability through supplying affordable electricity and providing a remunerated H₂ sink to offset the testing costs. Due to their lower TRL and requirement for a light source, large-scale photocatalysis and photoelectrochemistry testing are less developed and the requirements are currently less predictable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section A5: Hydrogen Energy)

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16 pages, 4929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High Conversion Ratio DC–DC Boost Converter with Continuous Output Current Using Dual-Current Flows

by Hwa-Soo Kim and Se-Un Shin

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3603; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083603 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1712

Abstract

Recently, the demand for small, low-cost electronics has increased the use of cost-effective tiny inductors in power-management ICs (PMICs). However, the conduction loss caused by the parasitic DC resistance (R_DCR) of a small inductor leads to low efficiency, which reduces [...] Read more.

Recently, the demand for small, low-cost electronics has increased the use of cost-effective tiny inductors in power-management ICs (PMICs). However, the conduction loss caused by the parasitic DC resistance (R_DCR) of a small inductor leads to low efficiency, which reduces the battery usage time and may also cause thermal problems in mobile devices. In particular, these issues become critical when a conventional boost converter (CBC) is used to achieve high-output voltage due to the large inductor current. In addition, as the output voltage increases, a number of issues become more serious, such as large output voltage ripple, conversion-ratio limit, and overlap loss. To solve these issues, this paper proposed a high-voltage boost converter with dual-current flows (HVDF). The proposed HVDF can achieve a higher efficiency than a CBC by reducing the total conduction loss in heavy load current conditions with a small inductor. Moreover, because in the HVDF, the current delivered to the output becomes continuous, unlike in the CBC with its discontinuous output delivery current, the output voltage ripple can be significantly reduced. Also, the conversion gain of the HVDF is less sensitive to R_DCR than that of the CBC. To further increase the conversion gain, a time-interleaved charge pump can be connected in series with the HVDF (HVDFCP) to achieve higher output voltage beyond the limit of the conversion gain in the HVDF while maintaining the advantages of a low inductor current and small output voltage ripple. Simulations using PSIM were performed along with a detailed numerical analysis of the conduction losses in the proposed structures. The simulation results were discussed and compared with those of the conventional structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Application of DC-DC Converters in Power Systems)

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22 pages, 5568 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Formal Verification of the European Train Control System (ETCS) for Better Energy Efficiency Using a Timed and Asynchronous Model

by Andrzej Kochan, Wiktor B. Daszczuk, Waldemar Grabski and Juliusz Karolak

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3602; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083602 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1491

Abstract

The ERTMS/ETCS is the newest automatic train protection system. This is a system that supports the driver in driving the train. It is currently being implemented throughout the European Union. This system’s latest specifications also provide additional functions to increase the energy efficiency [...] Read more.

The ERTMS/ETCS is the newest automatic train protection system. This is a system that supports the driver in driving the train. It is currently being implemented throughout the European Union. This system’s latest specifications also provide additional functions to increase the energy efficiency of train driving in the form of ATO (automatic train operation). These functions of the ETCS will be valuable, provided they operate without failure. To achieve errorless configuration of the ETCS, a methodology for automatic system verification using the IMDS (Integrated Model of Distributed Systems) formalism and the temporal tool Dedan was applied. The main contribution is asynchronous and timed verification, which appropriately models the distributed nature of the ETCS and allows the designer not only to analyze time dependencies but also to define the range of train velocities in which the operational scenario is valid. Additionally, the novelties of the presented verification methodology are the graphical design of the system components and automated verification freeing the designer from using textual design. We express the verified properties as observer automata rather than in temporal logic. Moreover, we check partial properties related to system fragments, which is crucial in distributed systems. This paper presents the verification of an example ETCS system application. The verification results are presented as sequence diagrams leading to a correct/incorrect final state. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling of Quality, Reliability, and Exploitation for Power Supply Systems, ICT Systems, and Transportation Systems)

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24 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessReview

Actualization and Adoption of Renewable Energy Usage in Remote Communities in Canada by 2050: A Review

by Obiora S. Agu, Lope G. Tabil and Edmund Mupondwa

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3601; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083601 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2529

Abstract

Remote community initiatives for renewable energy are rapidly emerging across Canada but with varying numbers, success rates, and strategies. To meet low-carbon transition goals, the need to coordinate technology deployment and long-term policy to guide the adoption is critical. Renewable resources such as [...] Read more.

Remote community initiatives for renewable energy are rapidly emerging across Canada but with varying numbers, success rates, and strategies. To meet low-carbon transition goals, the need to coordinate technology deployment and long-term policy to guide the adoption is critical. Renewable resources such as wind, solar, hydro, and biomass can provide energy at a subsidized cost, create sustainable infrastructure, and provide new economic viability in social value integration. The renewable energy transition is crucial to Canada in sustaining remote and indigenous communities by providing local, clean, and low-carbon-emission energy for heat, power, and possibly transportation. This paper identified 635 renewable resources projects deployed to improve and increase electricity supply. To an extent, balancing demand within the remote and indigenous communities of Canada and highlighting sustainable renewable energy development through ownership participation within the communities is achievable before 2050 and beyond through energy efficiency and the social value of energy. The article identifies clean energy targets as mandated by the different provinces in Canada to reach net-zero GHG emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Review Papers in Energy and Environment)

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13 pages, 2466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Analytical Determination of Steady-State Forces Acting on Cleats and Leads Conductor of the Power Transformer

by Michał Smoliński and Paweł Witczak

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3600; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083600 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1073

Abstract

Electromagnetic forces acting on conductors of the cleats and lead of a power transformer can cause permanent damage to the insulation of conductors. Determining the force acting on the conductor of cleats and leads cannot be performed using the standard analytical formula because [...] Read more.

Electromagnetic forces acting on conductors of the cleats and lead of a power transformer can cause permanent damage to the insulation of conductors. Determining the force acting on the conductor of cleats and leads cannot be performed using the standard analytical formula because those conductors are in close proximity to the construction part of the active part made of ferromagnetic material. To calculate those forces in a steady state of a three-phase AC current, a parametric numerical simulation was conducted. Based on the simulation, a new analytical formula for forces acting on cables near the ferromagnetic plate was proposed by the authors. It was also noted that the presence of the ferromagnetic plate can increase the forces up to 60% compared to the same geometry without the plate. This publication also discusses how eddy currents and the proximity effect influence forces acting on conductors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Problems during the Design and Testing of Instrument, Special and Power Transformers)

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14 pages, 6330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Compression and Expansion Process of Twin-Screw Machine Using R-134a

by Chia-Cheng Tsao, Wen-Kai Lin, Kai-Yuan Lai, Savas Yavuzkurt and Yao-Hsien Liu

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3599; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083599 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1315

Abstract

Increasing the efficiency of twin-screw machines is beneficial for gas compression and expansion applications. We used a computation fluid dynamic approach to obtain the flow field and efficiency of a twin-screw machine that used R-134a as the working fluid. The leakage flow and [...] Read more.

Increasing the efficiency of twin-screw machines is beneficial for gas compression and expansion applications. We used a computation fluid dynamic approach to obtain the flow field and efficiency of a twin-screw machine that used R-134a as the working fluid. The leakage flow and sealing lines were obtained to study their geometrical effects during the compression and expansion process. The effects of the wrap angle (280°, 290°, and 300°) and pressure ratios on the compression efficiency were studied. During the compression process, the volumetric efficiency was more than 70% regardless of the wrap angle. We found that the volumetric efficiency slightly decreased when the wrap angle increased. However, the effect of the wrap angle on the isentropic efficiency was not substantial. An increase in the pressure ratio decreased the mass flow rate and increased the leakage flow. This screw machine can also be operated in an expansion process, and the simulated expansion ratio was 3:1. However, this expansion ratio contributed to an underexpanded condition, which led to a lower volumetric and isentropic efficiencies compared with the original built-in expansion ratio scenario. Full article

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21 pages, 652 KiB

Open AccessReview

Cellulases: From Lignocellulosic Biomass to Improved Production

by Nevena Ilić, Marija Milić, Sunčica Beluhan and Suzana Dimitrijević-Branković

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3598; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083598 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2795

Abstract

Cellulases are enzymes that are attracting worldwide attention because of their ability to degrade cellulose in the lignocellulosic biomass and transform it into highly demanded bioethanol. The enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose by cellulases into fermentable sugars is a crucial step in biofuel production, [...] Read more.

Cellulases are enzymes that are attracting worldwide attention because of their ability to degrade cellulose in the lignocellulosic biomass and transform it into highly demanded bioethanol. The enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose by cellulases into fermentable sugars is a crucial step in biofuel production, given the complex structure of lignocellulose. Due to cellulases’ unique ability to hydrolyze the very recaltricant nature of lignocellulosic biomass, the cellulase market demand is rapidly growing. Although cellulases have been used in industrial applications for decades, constant effort is being made in the field of enzyme innovation to develop cellulase mixtures/cocktails with improved performance. Given that the main producers of cellulases are of microbial origin, there is a constant need to isolate new microorganisms as potential producers of enzymes important for biofuel production. This review provides insight into current research on improving microbial cellulase production as well as the outlook for the cellulase market with commercial cellulase preparation involved in industrial bioethanol production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biofuel Production from Waste Biomass)

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27 pages, 9409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation Study of Hydrodynamic Conditions in Reaction Cell for Cement Biomineralization Using Factorial Design and Computational Fluid Dynamics: Prospects for Increased Useful Life of Concrete Structures and Energetic/Environmental Benefits

by Bruno Augusto Cabral Roque, Pedro Pinto Ferreira Brasileiro, Yana Batista Brandão, Hilario Jorge Bezerra de Lima Filho, Attilio Converti, Bahar Aliakbarian, Mohand Benachour and Leonie Asfora Sarubbo

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3597; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083597 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1364

Abstract

Studies have reported the incorporation of microorganisms into cement to promote the formation of calcium carbonate in cracks of concrete, a process known as biomineralization. The paper aims to improve the process of the cascade system for biomineralization in cement by identifying the [...] Read more.

Studies have reported the incorporation of microorganisms into cement to promote the formation of calcium carbonate in cracks of concrete, a process known as biomineralization. The paper aims to improve the process of the cascade system for biomineralization in cement by identifying the best hydrodynamic conditions in a reaction cell in order to increase the useful life of concrete structures and, therefore, bring energy and environmental benefits. Two central composite rotatable designs were used to establish the positioning of the air inlet and outlet in the lateral or upper region of the geometry of the reaction cell. The geometries of the reaction cell were constructed in SOLIDWORKS^®, and computational fluid dynamics was performed using the Flow Simulation tool of the same software. The results were submitted to statistical analysis. The best combination of meshes for the simulation was global mesh 4 and local mesh 5. The statistical analysis applied to gas velocity and pressure revealed that air flow rate was the factor with the greatest sensitivity, with

R^{2}

values up to 99.9%. The geometry with the air outlet and inlet in the lateral region was considered to be the best option. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorisation of Wastes: Environmental Sustainability and Production of Biofuels by Advanced Technologies Ⅱ)

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Graphical abstract

19 pages, 1275 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Potential of Collaboration between India and Japan in the Hydrogen Sector

by Takuma Otaki and Rajib Shaw

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3596; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083596 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2507

Abstract

With growing concern about risks related to energy security around the world, the development of hydrogen cooperation between India and Japan has become very important to ensure the economic security of the two countries and to deepen economic cooperation. This report covers both [...] Read more.

With growing concern about risks related to energy security around the world, the development of hydrogen cooperation between India and Japan has become very important to ensure the economic security of the two countries and to deepen economic cooperation. This report covers both public and private initiatives in the hydrogen area in both countries and visualizes the high potential and potential areas where both countries could cooperate in the hydrogen area, as well as the challenges that are necessary for cooperation. The following four factors are strong incentives for India and Japan to deepen cooperation in the hydrogen field: (1) India has a high potential hydrogen supply capacity, (2) India is very active in implementing hydrogen in society, (3) Japan is already conducting R&D in areas of high interest to India and (4) Japan will need to import hydrogen from other countries in the future. The issues of (1) cost visualization, including transportation costs, (2) harmonization of regulations, (3) harmonization of promotion measures between the two countries, (4) definition of “green hydrogen,” and (5) protection of intellectual property are main challenges to be overcome. Thus, disclosures of necessary data for cost visualization of hydrogen transportation, further inter-governmental cooperations between India and Japan, and facilitation of the discussions on hydrogen among various stakes are key actions for materializing various joint hydrogen projects between both countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Energy Ⅱ)

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20 pages, 4147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Reserve from Photovoltaics for Improving Frequency Response in the Isolated System

by Olga Poliak and Doron Shmilovitz

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3595; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083595 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1124

Abstract

Appropriate frequency response is an issue of great importance in power system management, especially in an islanded one. An energy-based method for assessing a system’s response, which is needed to prevent under frequency load shedding (UFLS), is introduced. Renewable generation, such as wind [...] Read more.

Appropriate frequency response is an issue of great importance in power system management, especially in an islanded one. An energy-based method for assessing a system’s response, which is needed to prevent under frequency load shedding (UFLS), is introduced. Renewable generation, such as wind turbine (WT) and photovoltaic (PV) facilities, reduces the ability of the power system to resist power imbalances and increases the risks of consumer disconnections by UFLS system, and even of total collapse. To estimate the amount of additional fast power reserve, an equation was developed, relating the moment of inertia, the system demand dynamics, and the available response of synchronous generating units. Clustering units based on their ability to respond to frequency changes in low inertia conditions allows the potential synchronous response to be assessed, providing information of its deficiency in a defined system state. The proposed method was applied to the Israeli power system and up to 307 MW response needed from PV facilities was found for the 350 MW contingency, when the percentage of renewable energy reached 30% of the annual energy production. This study focused on proportional frequency response (PFR) and step frequency response (SFR) that PV facilities can provide. Using this method may contribute to the adoption of PV facilities into the power system without a detrimental impact on frequency response and may even improve the reliability of electricity supply. Full article

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3 pages, 184 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Improved Hydrogen Storage Performance of Novel Metal Hydrides and Their Composites

by Ádám Révész

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3594; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083594 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 781

Abstract

To date, the majority of energy supply is still generated by non-renewable sources, which places a dramatic burden on our environment [...] Full article

22 pages, 3816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration Optimization of Integrated Solar Combined Cycle (ISCC) System Based on System/Solar Photoelectric Efficiency

by Zuxian Zhang, Liqiang Duan, Zhen Wang and Yujie Ren

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3593; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083593 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1141

Abstract

Integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) systems play a pivotal role in the utilization of non-fossil energy; however, the efficient application of solar energy has emerged as a primary issue in the study of ISCC systems. Therefore, it is extremely urgent to propose the [...] Read more.

Integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) systems play a pivotal role in the utilization of non-fossil energy; however, the efficient application of solar energy has emerged as a primary issue in the study of ISCC systems. Therefore, it is extremely urgent to propose the best optimization scheme for ISCC under different operating conditions. In this paper, according to the idea of temperature matching and cascade utilization, the optimization of the ISCC system is carried out with the genetic algorithm for the whole working conditions, and the optimization schemes with the highest photoelectric efficiency and system efficiency under different working conditions are derived. In comparison with two optimization schemes with different objective functions, the conclusion can be drawn that: At 100% gas turbine load—30% DNI and 100% gas turbine load—100% DNI working conditions, respectively, the maximum system efficiency of 56.32% and the maximum solar photoelectric efficiency of 35.5% are attained. With the decreasing of gas turbine load, the solar energy integration position will gradually change from the topping cycle to the bottom cycle; with the gas turbine load variation from 100% to 75%, the optimal photoelectric efficiency model prefers two-stage integration, and up to 141.3 MW of solar energy could be integrated, which is greater than the maximum value of 127.1 MW for the optimal system efficiency model. Regarding the heat collection choice of bottom cycle, the optimal photoelectric efficiency model prefers the high-pressure boiler (HPB), while the optimal system efficiency model prefers the high-pressure superheater (HPS). The comparison between the optimal solution and the actual cases confirms the correctness of the optimization results and provides guidance for the subsequent ISCC study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Saving and Energy Efficiency Technologies)

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16 pages, 5232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Space Charge Signal Spatial Resolution Determined with PEA Method in Flat Samples including Attenuation Effects

by Marek Florkowski and Maciej Kuniewski

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3592; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083592 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1087

Abstract

The constant development of the electrical engineering sector, especially in the transmission of electrical energy under high-voltage direct current (HVDC), requires research on new insulation materials and investigations of physical phenomena under ultrahigh electrical fields in solid dielectrics. One of the current problematic [...] Read more.

The constant development of the electrical engineering sector, especially in the transmission of electrical energy under high-voltage direct current (HVDC), requires research on new insulation materials and investigations of physical phenomena under ultrahigh electrical fields in solid dielectrics. One of the current problematic issues is the formation of space charge in HV insulation systems, which affects the operational electrical field distribution and can lead to faster insulation degradation. There are several problems that have to be considered before every space charge measurement, such as the attenuation and dispersion of sound waves in tested dielectric materials, reflections at the interfaces, and the spatial resolution of the measured charge profile. The spatial resolution is one of the most important technical factors of the PEA measurement stand. The spatial resolution, as it is assumed, depends on several factors, such as the width of the pulser and the pulse rise time, the thickness of the piezoelectric sensor, and the dispersion of the tested material. The article presents the laboratory measurement results of the impact of pulser parameters, such as pulse width and rise time, and sensor thickness on the equivalent thickness of the measured net charge layer corresponding to the resolution of the method. The dispersion in the tested LDPE material is also presented and analysed. The results show that with an increase in the pulser rise time, a higher resolution of the pea method can be achieved. Full article

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29 pages, 7396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physics-Based Prediction for the Consumption and Emissions of Passenger Vehicles and Light Trucks up to 2050

by Manfred Dollinger and Gerhard Fischerauer

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3591; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083591 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1613

Abstract

The increasing market share of electric vehicles and the politically intended phase-out of the internal combustion engine require reliable and realistic predictions for future consumption and greenhouse gas emissions as a function of technological solutions. This also includes the consumption- and emission-intensive transport [...] Read more.

The increasing market share of electric vehicles and the politically intended phase-out of the internal combustion engine require reliable and realistic predictions for future consumption and greenhouse gas emissions as a function of technological solutions. This also includes the consumption- and emission-intensive transport of goods. We consider both passenger vehicles and commercial vehicle traffic in our study and have investigated whether there are drive alternatives to the battery electric vehicle that enable uninterrupted trips with a long range, especially for regional delivery services and internationally active freight forwarders. To this end, we have analysed three system architectures and their expected technological progress until 2050: battery electric vehicles (BEV), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) running on compressed natural gas (CNG). The latter case serves as a best-practice reference from a combustion technology perspective. The analysis is based on a validated and proven physical model and predicts that the BEV2050 will consume 3.5 times less energy and emit 15 times fewer greenhouse gases than the ICEV-CNG2020, whereas the FCEV2050 will consume 2.5 times less energy and emit 6.5 times fewer greenhouse gases than the ICEV-CNG2020 on the road (hilly terrain, transition season, and WLTP triple-mixed drive cycle). The advantages of the BEV result from the shorter drive train with lower total losses. Our results thus confirm the expected role of the BEV as the dominant drive technology in the future, and light vehicles with low-to-medium-range requirements will especially benefit from it. On the other hand, since the greenhouse gas emissions of the FCEV2050 are lower by a factor of 6.5 than those of the ICEV-CNG2020, it is reasonable to conclude that the FCEV can play a significant role in transport until 2050 when long distances have to be covered. Our model-based approach also allows us to determine the energy fractions of the acting physical forces and thus calculate the consumption shares: electric drive recuperation increases BEV and FCEV range by about 15% in 2020 and will increase it by about 20% in 2050, depending on drive technology and vehicle type. Air and rolling resistance contribute 20% each to the total consumption. The consumption of the accessories of modern vehicles with a share of about 10% of the total consumption cannot be neglected. Full article

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9 pages, 237 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Energy Conversion Using Electronic Power Converters: Technologies and Applications

by Salvatore Musumeci

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3590; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083590 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1440

Abstract

Nowadays, energy conversion plays a crucial role in sustainable growth and development [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced DC-DC Power Converters and Switching Converters II)

13 pages, 3573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine-Learning-Based Classification for Pipeline Corrosion with Monte Carlo Probabilistic Analysis

by Mohd Fadly Hisham Ismail, Zazilah May, Vijanth Sagayan Asirvadam and Nazrul Anuar Nayan

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3589; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083589 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1936

Abstract

Pipeline corrosion is one of the leading causes of failures in the transmission of gas and hazardous liquids in the oil and gas industry. In-line inspection is a non-destructive inspection for detecting corrosion defects in pipelines. Defects are measured in terms of their [...] Read more.

Pipeline corrosion is one of the leading causes of failures in the transmission of gas and hazardous liquids in the oil and gas industry. In-line inspection is a non-destructive inspection for detecting corrosion defects in pipelines. Defects are measured in terms of their width, length and depth. Consecutive in-line inspection data are used to determine the pipeline’s corrosion growth rate and its remnant life, which set the operational and maintenance activities of the pipeline. The traditional approach of manually processing in-line inspection data has various weaknesses, including being time consuming due to huge data volume and complexity, prone to error, subject to biased judgement by experts and challenging for matching of in-line inspection datasets. This paper aimed to contribute to the adoption of machine learning approaches in classifying pipeline defects as per Pipeline Operator Forum requirements and matching in-line inspection data for determining the corrosion growth rate and remnant life of pipelines. Machine learning techniques, namely, decision tree, random forest, support vector machines and logistic regression, were applied in the classification of pipeline defects using Phyton programming. The performance of each technique in terms of the accuracy of results was compared. The results showed that the decision tree classifier model was the most accurate (99.9%) compared with the other classifiers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection and Diagnosis in Oil and Gas Pipelines)

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20 pages, 9251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Oxidation Reaction of Coal-Pyrite and Mineral-Pyrite with the Participation of Fe(III) and Bacteria under Acidic Conditions

by Mengya Ma, Wenfeng Wang, Kun Zhang and Zhixiang Shi

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3588; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083588 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1477

Abstract

As one of the crucial factors contributing to coal spontaneous combustion, the oxidation of pyrite is a complex process involving multiple reactions, particularly in the presence of oxidants (Fe³⁺ and O₂) and bacteria. However, experimental results based on mineral-pyrite are [...] Read more.

As one of the crucial factors contributing to coal spontaneous combustion, the oxidation of pyrite is a complex process involving multiple reactions, particularly in the presence of oxidants (Fe³⁺ and O₂) and bacteria. However, experimental results based on mineral-pyrite are not entirely applicable to coal-pyrite due to their differences in formation environments and compositions. This study selected two types of coal-pyrite and one type of mineral-pyrite as research to conduct oxidation experiments with the participation of oxidant (Fe³⁺) and bacteria (Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans), respectively, to obtain the following conclusions. Under natural conditions, the chemical oxidation rate of pyrite is slow, but the addition of oxidant Fe³⁺ and bacteria can significantly accelerate the oxidation rate. The promotion effect of oxidant Fe³⁺ on the oxidation reaction is stronger than that of bacteria. Under the same conditions, the oxidation rate of coal-pyrite samples is slightly higher than that of mineral-pyrite, due to the relatively higher impurities content, poorer crystal structure, and humic acid in the coal seams. Additionally, different compositions of coal-pyrite samples can lead to various oxidation degrees under different conditions. Therefore, the oxidation process and mechanism of pyrite in coal seams are complex and affected by many factors, which need further study to prevent coal spontaneous combustion accurately and effectively. Full article

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16 pages, 7627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Surrogate Model-Based Multi-Objective Lightweight Optimization of Spherical Fuel Element Canister

by Yuchen Hao, Jinhua Wang, Musen Lin, Menghang Gong, Wei Zhang, Bin Wu, Tao Ma, Haitao Wang, Bing Liu and Yue Li

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3587; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083587 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1165

Abstract

A number of canisters need to be lightweight designed to store the spherical fuel elements (SFE) used in high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR). The main challenge for engineering is pursuing high-accuracy and high-efficiency optimization simultaneously. Accordingly, a hybrid surrogate model-based multi-objective optimization method with [...] Read more.

A number of canisters need to be lightweight designed to store the spherical fuel elements (SFE) used in high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR). The main challenge for engineering is pursuing high-accuracy and high-efficiency optimization simultaneously. Accordingly, a hybrid surrogate model-based multi-objective optimization method with the numerical method for the lightweight and safe design of the SFE canister is proposed. To be specific, the drop analysis model of the SFE canister is firstly established where the finite element method—discrete element method (FEM–DEM) coupled method is integrated to simulate the interaction force between the SFE and canister. Through simulation, the design variables, optimization objectives, and constraints are identified. Then the hybrid radial basis function—response surface method (RBF–RSM) surrogate method is carried out to approximate and simplify the accurate numerical model. A non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) is used for resolving this multi-objective model. Optimal design is validated using comprehensive comparison, and the reduction of weight and maximum strain can be up to 2.46% and 44.65%, respectively. High-accuracy simulation with high-efficiency optimization is successfully demonstrated to perform the lightweight design on nuclear facilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Nuclear Energy Systems)

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6 pages, 700 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Transportation Systems Modeling, Simulation and Analysis with Reference to Energy Supplying

by Artur Kierzkowski and Agnieszka A. Tubis

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3586; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083586 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1123

Abstract

Transport plays an important role in the economy of a given country or region [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transportation Systems Modeling, Simulation and Analysis with Reference to Energy Supplying)

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16 pages, 1397 KiB

Open AccessReview

Urban Transportation Concept and Sustainable Urban Mobility in Smart Cities: A Review

by Inese Mavlutova, Dzintra Atstaja, Janis Grasis, Jekaterina Kuzmina, Inga Uvarova and Dagnija Roga

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3585; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083585 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4022

Abstract

In order to create a sustainable future for the urban environment in s=Smart cities, it is necessary to develop a concept of urban transport, partially reduce the use of traditional transport, primarily cars, as well as the environmental pressure on society, which is [...] Read more.

In order to create a sustainable future for the urban environment in s=Smart cities, it is necessary to develop a concept of urban transport, partially reduce the use of traditional transport, primarily cars, as well as the environmental pressure on society, which is essential to move to a sustainable urban future. In the latest discussions on the future of the urban transport system, the quality of the environment, and the possibility of its improvement are discussed, this issue became especially relevant with the onset of the pandemic, when the lockdowns were introduced. The problem of sustainable transport in urban areas has been recognized in academic studies, searching for appropriate models and solutions. The article presents the latest literature review and illustrates the newest trends with several examples. VOS Viewer software has been used to classify the different keywords, according to their co-citation, following clustering techniques. By analyzing the research conducted by other researchers, it has been possible to structure the ecosystem and trends in the Urban Transportation Concept, also mentioning likely future trends. Based on the literature analysis of the Sustainable Urban Transport, the authors of the study found that a large group of researchers deal with technical solutions and innovative business models, while the essential behavioral aspects are examined in less detail. Extensive literature analysis allowed the authors to select several solutions to achieve the transformation towards sustainable transportation in urban areas: new vehicle technologies and their environmental factors’ analysis, geographic information systems, the analytic hierarchy process method, the time series analysis of road traffic accidents using multiplicative models, electrification and use of Friedman Analysis of Variance by Ranks, as well as innovations in sharing mobility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Business Models and Circular Economy in Energy Production and Consumption)

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19 pages, 4951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts Analysis of Dual Carbon Target on the Medium- and Long-Term Petroleum Products Demand in China

by Li Shang, Qun Shen, Xuehang Song, Weisheng Yu, Nannan Sun and Wei Wei

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3584; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083584 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1433

Abstract

Petroleum has become a strategic resource to the national economy, and forecasting its demand is a critical step to supporting energy planning and policy-making for carbon reduction. We first conducted a characteristic analysis of end consumption for petroleum products, and the key affecting [...] Read more.

Petroleum has become a strategic resource to the national economy, and forecasting its demand is a critical step to supporting energy planning and policy-making for carbon reduction. We first conducted a characteristic analysis of end consumption for petroleum products, and the key affecting factors are identified through an extended logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) method. Afterwards, the long-range energy alternatives planning system (LEAP) was adopted to predict the petroleum products demand by considering the potential impacts of different policies on the identified key factors. Through comparative analysis of three scenarios including five sub-scenarios, the findings show that the dual carbon constraints are crucial to petroleum demand control. Under the enforcement of existing carbon peaking policies, the petroleum products demand will peak around 2043 at 731.5 million tons, and the impact of energy intensity-related policies is more significant than that of activity level. However, even if the existing policy efforts are continued, supporting the carbon-neutral target will not be easy. By further strengthening the constraints, the demand will peak around 2027 at 680 million tons, and the abatement contribution will come mainly from industry (manufacturing), construction, and transportation. Additional abatement technologies are necessary for the petroleum industry to achieve carbon neutrality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Policy, Regulation and Sustainable Development)

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14 pages, 5652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for CM EMI Suppression on PFC Converter Using Lossless Snubber with Chaotic Spread Spectrum

by Weifeng Fan, Yilong Shi and Yanming Chen

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3583; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083583 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1494

Abstract

This paper proposes an improved common mode (CM) electromagnetic interference (EMI) suppression method in switching power supplies. The lossless snubber circuit can reduce du/dt and EMI in the high-frequency band. Nevertheless, it has a weak EMI suppression effect on the [...] Read more.

This paper proposes an improved common mode (CM) electromagnetic interference (EMI) suppression method in switching power supplies. The lossless snubber circuit can reduce du/dt and EMI in the high-frequency band. Nevertheless, it has a weak EMI suppression effect on the low-frequency band. A method combining the chaotic spread spectrum and the lossless snubber (CSS–LS) is proposed to improve the EMI suppression effect of the lossless snubber. It is an effective means to suppress CM EMI further. The paper used a Boost PFC converter as the object of analysis to study the CM EMI suppression effect of CSS–LS. Firstly, a CM EMI-equivalent model of the lossless snubber PFC converter was established. Then, the power spectral density function under chaotic spread-spectrum modulation was derived. The simulation analysis was performed. Finally, an experimental prototype was built, and relevant EMI tests were carried out. The experimental results show that CSS–LS can reduce CM EMI by 4~20 dBµV with little impact on converter stability. Fewer extra costs are needed for this optimization method, which is suitable for high-power-density power electronic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section F3: Power Electronics)

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14 pages, 2399 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generator Fault Diagnosis with Bit-Coding Support Vector Regression Algorithm

by Whei-Min Lin

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3582; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083582 - 20 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1232

Abstract

Generator fault diagnosis has a great impact on power networks. With the coupling effects, some uncertain factors, and all the complexities of generator design, fault diagnosis is difficult using any theoretical analysis or mathematical model. This paper proposes a bit-coding support vector regression [...] Read more.

Generator fault diagnosis has a great impact on power networks. With the coupling effects, some uncertain factors, and all the complexities of generator design, fault diagnosis is difficult using any theoretical analysis or mathematical model. This paper proposes a bit-coding support vector regression (BSVR) algorithm for turbine generator fault diagnosis (GFD) based on a support vector machine (SVM) capable of processing multiple classification problems of fault diagnosis. The BSVR can simplify the design architecture and reduce the processing time for detection, where m classifier is needed for m class problems compared to the [m(m − 1)]/2 size of the original multi-class SVM. Compared with conventional methods, numerical test results showed a high accuracy, good robustness, and a faster processing performance. Full article

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19 pages, 1994 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Big Data Analytics for Smart Electrical Energy Systems

by Huilian Liao, Elizabeth Michalenko and Sarat Chandra Vegunta

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3581; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083581 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2905

Abstract

Energy systems around the world are going through tremendous transformations, mainly driven by carbon footprint reductions and related policy imperatives and low-carbon technological development. These transformations pose unprecedented technical challenges to the energy sector, but they also bring opportunities for energy systems to [...] Read more.

Energy systems around the world are going through tremendous transformations, mainly driven by carbon footprint reductions and related policy imperatives and low-carbon technological development. These transformations pose unprecedented technical challenges to the energy sector, but they also bring opportunities for energy systems to develop, adapt, and evolve. With rising complexity and increased digitalization, there has been significant growth in the amount of data in the power/energy sector (data ranging from power grid to household levels). Utilization of this large data (or “big data”), along with the use of proper data analytics, will allow for useful insights to be drawn that will help energy systems to deliver an increased amount of technical, operational, economic, and environmental benefits. This paper reviews various categories of data available in the current and future energy systems and the potential benefits of utilizing those data categories in energy system planning and operation. This paper also discusses the Big Data Analytics (BDA) that can be used to process/analyze the data and extract useful information that can be integrated and used in energy systems. More specifically, this paper discusses typical applications of BDA in energy systems, including how BDA can be used to resolve the critical issues faced by the current and future energy network operations and how BDA contributes to the development of smarter and more flexible energy systems. Combining data characterization and analysis methods, this review paper presents BDA as a powerful tool for making electrical energy systems smarter, more responsive, and more resilient to changes in operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Big Data Analytics for Smart Power/Energy Systems)

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25 pages, 14664 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Solar Electric Vehicles as Energy Sources in Disaster Zones: Physical and Social Factors

by Kenji Araki, Yasuyuki Ota, Anju Maeda, Minoru Kumano and Kensuke Nishioka

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3580; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083580 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3443

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) have the advantage of being resilient to natural disasters. However, users hesitate to donate electricity when they lose the chance to recharge at the utility. Solar electric vehicles (SEVs) save energy through vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (VIPV) and make it possible to [...] Read more.

Electric vehicles (EVs) have the advantage of being resilient to natural disasters. However, users hesitate to donate electricity when they lose the chance to recharge at the utility. Solar electric vehicles (SEVs) save energy through vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (VIPV) and make it possible to voluntarily donate excess energy, thus maintaining facility resilience. Given that the supply of solar energy to VIPV systems is not continuous and is difficult to forecast, the contribution of VIPV to the resilience of the larger energy system has been called into question. This is the first study in which the potential of VIPV to maintain utility resilience is investigated in the context of physical factors, such as irradiance, and social factors. The actual energy yield of a VIPV car was determined using an advanced 3D solar irradiation model under a nonuniform shading distribution, with validation from actual measures of solar irradiance on five orthogonal sides of the car body. The Monte Carlo method was used to model the complex factors in VIPV energy storage and energy donations under different scenarios. Depending on the climate, population density, and shading environment, the voluntary contribution of stored electricity in SEV is sufficient to provide disaster relief support. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Renewable Energy and Energy Storage Systems)

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