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Energies, Volume 13, Issue 21 (November-1 2020) – 327 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): A new method for analysing the process of irreversible, partial demagnetization of permanent magnets in LSPMSM was presented. It is based on a model of coupled electromagnetic and thermal phenomena that occur in machines, and it takes into account the influence of temperature on magnetic, electric and thermal properties of materials. The calculation results were compared to the results of experimental studies. View this paper.
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20 pages, 1334 KiB  
Article
Event Effects Estimation on Electricity Demand Forecasting
by Kei Hirose, Keigo Wada, Maiya Hori and Rin-ichiro Taniguchi
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5839; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215839 - 10 Nov 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2373
Abstract
We consider the problem of short-term electricity demand forecasting in a small-scale area. Electric power usage depends heavily on irregular daily events. Event information must be incorporated into the forecasting model to obtain high forecast accuracy. The electricity fluctuation due to daily events [...] Read more.
We consider the problem of short-term electricity demand forecasting in a small-scale area. Electric power usage depends heavily on irregular daily events. Event information must be incorporated into the forecasting model to obtain high forecast accuracy. The electricity fluctuation due to daily events is considered to be a basis function of time period in a regression model. We present several basis functions that extract the characteristics of the event effect. When the basis function cannot be specified, we employ the fused lasso for automatic construction of the basis function. With the fused lasso, some coefficients of neighboring time periods take exactly the same values, leading to stable basis function estimation and enhancement of interpretation. Our proposed method is applied to the electricity demand data of a research facility in Japan. The results show that our proposed model yields better forecast accuracy than a model that omits event information; our proposed method resulted in roughly 12% and 20% improvements in mean absolute percentage error and root mean squared error, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids)
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16 pages, 2049 KiB  
Article
Approximation Algorithm-Based Prosumer Scheduling for Microgrids
by Incheol Shin
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5853; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215853 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1858
Abstract
Since the inherent intermittency and uncertainty of renewable energy resources complicates efficient Microgrid operations, a Demand Response (DR) scheme is implemented for customers in the grid to alter their power-usage patterns. However, for a real-time pricing model at the current DR, the automated [...] Read more.
Since the inherent intermittency and uncertainty of renewable energy resources complicates efficient Microgrid operations, a Demand Response (DR) scheme is implemented for customers in the grid to alter their power-usage patterns. However, for a real-time pricing model at the current DR, the automated decision on the energy price is not trustworthy because of artificial interferences to the power generation. As opposed to energy price, an operational cost-based prosumer scheduling approach would be able to protect the integrity of the power grid operations from deceptive market transactions and assist in robust energy management. To investigate the operational challenges associated with the costs and prosumers in the Microgrid, we focus on formulating the problem mathematically and designing approximation algorithms to solve the problem of how to optimally identify suppliers to minimize the total operational costs associated with providing electricity. We prove the hardness of the scheduling as one of the NP-Hard problems and propose polynomial time algorithms for approximating optimal solutions. With a proper resilience level for reliable power services, the scheduling algorithms include ways to construct not only robust supplier networks, but also group energy communities in terms of black start while minimizing the operational costs. A series of theoretical performances and experimental evaluations also demonstrates the practical effectiveness of this scheduling model for the operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamic Scheduling, Optimisation and Control of Futures Smart Grids)
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16 pages, 15670 KiB  
Article
An Optimal Phase Arrangement of Distribution Transformers under Risk Assessment
by Chia-Sheng Tu, Chung-Yuen Yang and Ming-Tang Tsai
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5852; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215852 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1739
Abstract
This paper presents a phase arrangement procedure for distribution transformers to improve system unbalance and voltage profile of distribution systems, while considering the location and uncertainties of the wind turbine (WT) and photovoltaics (PV). Based on historical data, the Monte Carlo method is [...] Read more.
This paper presents a phase arrangement procedure for distribution transformers to improve system unbalance and voltage profile of distribution systems, while considering the location and uncertainties of the wind turbine (WT) and photovoltaics (PV). Based on historical data, the Monte Carlo method is used to calculate the power generation value-at-risk (VAR) of WTs/PVs installed under a given level of confidence. The main target of this paper is to reduce the line loss and unbalance factor during 24-hour intervals. Assessing the various confidence levels of risk, a feasible particle swarm optimization (FPSO) is proposed to solve the optimal location of WTs/PVs installed and transformer load arrangement. A three-phase power flow with equivalent current injection (ECI) is analyzed to demonstrate the operating efficiency of the FPSO in a Taipower feeder. Simulation results will support the planner in the proper location of WTs/PVs installed to reduce system losses and maintain the voltage profile. They can also provide more risk information for handing uncertainties when the renewable energy is connected to the distribution system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids)
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13 pages, 24737 KiB  
Article
Interfacial Thermal Conductance across Graphene/MoS2 van der Waals Heterostructures
by Shuang Wu, Jifen Wang, Huaqing Xie and Zhixiong Guo
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5851; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215851 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3904
Abstract
The thermal conductivity and interface thermal conductance of graphene stacked MoS2 (graphene/MoS2) van der Waals heterostructure were studied by the first principles and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Firstly, two different heterostructures were established and optimized by VASP. Subsequently, we obtained [...] Read more.
The thermal conductivity and interface thermal conductance of graphene stacked MoS2 (graphene/MoS2) van der Waals heterostructure were studied by the first principles and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Firstly, two different heterostructures were established and optimized by VASP. Subsequently, we obtained the thermal conductivity (K) and interfacial thermal conductance (G) via MD simulations. The predicted Κ of monolayer graphene and monolayer MoS2 reached 1458.7 W/m K and 55.27 W/m K, respectively. The thermal conductance across the graphene/MoS2 interface was calculated to be 8.95 MW/m2 K at 300 K. The G increases with temperature and the interface coupling strength. Finally, the phonon spectra and phonon density of state were obtained to analyze the changing mechanism of thermal conductivity and thermal conductance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat Transfer and Thermal Management: From Nano to Micro-Scale)
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19 pages, 8343 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Assimilation of Fire Suppression Modeling and Simulation of Radiant Fire by Water and Its Synergistic Effects with Carbon Dioxide
by Hassan Raza Shah, Kun Wang, Xu Qing Lang, Jing Wu Wang, Jing Jun Wang, Jun Fang, Yong Ming Zhang and Omar M. Aldossary
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5850; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215850 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2080
Abstract
Recently, water has been employed as a supportive agent for the preparation of multiple suppressing agents including aqueous film forming foams (AFFF), which is combined with different kinds of gases for its various applications. In this study, the water mist is chosen for [...] Read more.
Recently, water has been employed as a supportive agent for the preparation of multiple suppressing agents including aqueous film forming foams (AFFF), which is combined with different kinds of gases for its various applications. In this study, the water mist is chosen for the gas-suppressing agent such as carbon dioxide. Our work investigated the suppression effects of water droplets on the n-heptane pool fire, and its mixture with carbon dioxide, respectively. The size and frequency of droplets with their effect on temperature and suppression was compared to observe the difference in the suppression. Initially, it was found that the droplets having a larger droplet size were found to be more efficient as compared to the smaller droplets with respect to the heat release rate, temperature, and radiation. Afterwards, a mixture of water droplets and carbon dioxide was simultaneously discharged to compare the difference between these two suppressing agents. It was found that the synergistic effect of the mixture has higher advantages over the use of only water suppression. It helps reduce the hot gases that surround the pool fire and allows the water mist to travel efficiently towards the fuel. Both suppression mechanisms were set to similar initial parameters that lead to different outcomes. Full article
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47 pages, 14980 KiB  
Article
Analysis and Design Guidelines for Current Control Loops of Grid-Connected Converters Based on Mathematical Models
by Gonzalo Abad, Alain Sanchez-Ruiz, Juan José Valera-García and Aritz Milikua
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5849; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215849 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2015
Abstract
Having a method for analyzing and designing regulators of controls that contain many current loops such as active filters is not a trivial task. There can be many parameters of regulators and filters that must be carefully selected in order to fulfill certain [...] Read more.
Having a method for analyzing and designing regulators of controls that contain many current loops such as active filters is not a trivial task. There can be many parameters of regulators and filters that must be carefully selected in order to fulfill certain desired requirements. For instance, these can be stability, dynamic response, robustness under uncertainty of parameters, and rejection capability to switching harmonics. Hence, this paper provides general analysis guidelines for designing current control loops by using mathematical models in an αβ reference frame. Then, by using the proposed modeling tool, a multi-objective tuning algorithm is proposed that helps obtain all the control loops’ regulator and filter parameters, meeting all the desired requirements. Thus, the proposed analysis and design methodology is illustrated by applying it to three different controls conceived in a dq rotating reference frame with PI (Proportional Integral) regulators. The first control presents two current loops (simple dq current control), the second control uses four current loops (dual vector control, for unbalanced loads), while the third control presents eight current loops (active filter controlling current harmonics). Several experimental and simulation results show the effectiveness and usefulness of the proposed method. Since the mathematical model employed is in the αβ reference frame, it can also be easily applied to controls conceived in a αβ reference frame using resonant regulators, providing also a common comparative framework. Full article
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17 pages, 1802 KiB  
Article
The Integration of Hybrid Mini Thermal Power Plants into the Energy Complex of the Republic of Vietnam
by Guzel Mingaleeva, Olga Afanaseva, Duc Toan Nguen, Dang Nayt Pham and Pietro Zunino
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5848; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215848 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2153
Abstract
The article describes a method of integrating small distributed generation components in the power system of the Republic of Vietnam. The features of the energy system of Vietnam and the technologies used for mini thermal power plants are considered. The classification of small [...] Read more.
The article describes a method of integrating small distributed generation components in the power system of the Republic of Vietnam. The features of the energy system of Vietnam and the technologies used for mini thermal power plants are considered. The classification of small distributed generation components is presented with implantation of the most used resources of Vietnam—fossil and renewable. A generalized methodology for selection and calculation of technological schemes for mini thermal power plants is considered. The schemes of steam-turbine mini thermal power plants operating with coal and gas-turbine mini thermal power plants with solar air heaters are selected. Based on the calculation of the selected mini thermal power plant schemes, their distribution in the territory of the Republic of Vietnam has been obtained. The thermoeconomic efficiency has been chosen as the criterion for the best option for placing mini thermal power plants; its value for the proposed option is of 6.77%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section L: Energy Sources)
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41 pages, 5283 KiB  
Review
Current State and Future Prospects for Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion Systems
by Qaisar Abbas, Mojtaba Mirzaeian, Michael R.C. Hunt, Peter Hall and Rizwan Raza
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5847; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215847 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 58 | Viewed by 7283
Abstract
Electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems such as electrochemical capacitors, batteries and fuel cells are considered as the most important technologies proposing environmentally friendly and sustainable solutions to address rapidly growing global energy demands and environmental concerns. Their commercial applications individually or in [...] Read more.
Electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems such as electrochemical capacitors, batteries and fuel cells are considered as the most important technologies proposing environmentally friendly and sustainable solutions to address rapidly growing global energy demands and environmental concerns. Their commercial applications individually or in combination of two or more devices are based on their distinguishing properties e.g., energy/power densities, cyclability and efficiencies. In this review article, we have discussed some of the major electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems and encapsulated their technological advancement in recent years. Fundamental working principles and material compositions of various components such as electrodes and electrolytes have also been discussed. Furthermore, future challenges and perspectives for the applications of these technologies are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Electrochemical Capacitors)
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23 pages, 7733 KiB  
Article
Design and Operational Control Strategy for Optimum Off-Design Performance of an ORC Plant for Low-Grade Waste Heat Recovery
by Fabio Fatigati, Diego Vittorini, Yaxiong Wang, Jian Song, Christos N. Markides and Roberto Cipollone
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5846; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215846 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3114
Abstract
The applicability of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) technology to waste heat recovery (WHR) is currently experiencing growing interest and accelerated technological development. The utilization of low-to-medium grade thermal energy sources, especially in the presence of heat source intermittency in applications where the thermal [...] Read more.
The applicability of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) technology to waste heat recovery (WHR) is currently experiencing growing interest and accelerated technological development. The utilization of low-to-medium grade thermal energy sources, especially in the presence of heat source intermittency in applications where the thermal source is characterized by highly variable thermodynamic conditions, requires a control strategy for off-design operation to achieve optimal ORC power-unit performance. This paper presents a validated comprehensive model for off-design analysis of an ORC power-unit, with R236fa as the working fluid, a gear pump, and a 1.5 kW sliding vane rotary expander (SVRE) for WHR from the exhaust gases of a light-duty internal combustion engine. Model validation is performed using data from an extensive experimental campaign on both the rotary equipment (pump, expander) and the remainder components of the plant, namely the heat recovery vapor generator (HRVH), condenser, reservoirs, and piping. Based on the validated computational platform, the benefits on the ORC plant net power output and efficiency of either a variable permeability expander or of sliding vane rotary pump optimization are assessed. The novelty introduced by this optimization strategy is that the evaluations are conducted by a numerical model, which reproduces the real features of the ORC plant. This approach ensures an analysis of the whole system both from a plant and cycle point of view, catching some real aspects that are otherwise undetectable. These optimization strategies are considered as a baseline ORC plant that suffers low expander efficiency (30%) and a large parasitic pumping power, with a backwork ratio (BWR) of up to 60%. It is found that the benefits on the expander power arising from a lower permeability combined with a lower energy demand by the pump (20% of BWR) for circulation of the working fluid allows a better recovery performance for the ORC plant with respect to the baseline case. Adopting the optimization strategies, the average efficiency and maximum generated power increase from 1.5% to 3.5% and from 400 to 1100 W, respectively. These performances are in accordance with the plant efficiencies found in the experimental works in the literature, which vary between 1.6% and 6.5% for similar applications. Nonetheless, there is still room for improvement regarding a proper design of rotary machines, which can be redesigned considering the indications resulting from the developed optimization analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waste Energy Recovery and Valorization in Internal Combustion Engines)
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16 pages, 3324 KiB  
Article
Toward a Survey-Based Assessment of Wind Turbine Noise: The Impacts on Wellbeing of Local Residents
by Lida Liao, Yuliang Ling, Bin Huang, Xu Zhou, Hongbo Luo, Peiling Xie, Ying Wu and Jialiang Huang
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5845; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215845 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1968
Abstract
As a renewable energy source, wind energy harvesting provides a desirable solution to address the environmental concerns associated with energy production to satisfy the increasingly global demand. Over the years, the penetration of wind turbines has experienced a rapid growth, however, the impacts [...] Read more.
As a renewable energy source, wind energy harvesting provides a desirable solution to address the environmental concerns associated with energy production to satisfy the increasingly global demand. Over the years, the penetration of wind turbines has experienced a rapid growth, however, the impacts of turbine noise correspondingly become a major concern in wind energy harvesting. Recent studies indicate that the noise emitted by turbine operating could increase the risk of nuisance, which might further affect the well-being of local residents. However, the main factors affecting turbine noise assessment and to what extent they contribute to the assessment are still unclear. In this study, a survey-based approach is developed to identify these major factors and to explore the interactions between the factors and assessment results. Principal component analysis method was adapted to extract key factors; followed by reliability assessment, validity analysis, descriptive assessment, and correlation analysis were conducted to test the robust of the proposed methodology, as well as to examine the interactions between variables. Regression analysis was finally employed to measure the impacts on results contributed by the key factors. Findings of this study indicate that key factors including physical conditions, control capacity, and subjective opinions are of significant impact on residents’ response to wind turbine noise, while the factor of subjective opinions contributes predominately to the assessment results. Further validations also indicate that the proposed approach is robust and can be extensively applied in survey-based assessments for other fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
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19 pages, 7715 KiB  
Article
Data-Driven Three-Phase Saturation Identification from X-ray CT Images with Critical Gas Hydrate Saturation
by Sungil Kim, Kyungbook Lee, Minhui Lee and Taewoong Ahn
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5844; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215844 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1812
Abstract
This study proposes three-phase saturation identification using X-ray computerized tomography (CT) images of gas hydrate (GH) experiments considering critical GH saturation (SGH,C) based on the machine-learning method of random forest. Eight GH samples were categorized into three low and five high [...] Read more.
This study proposes three-phase saturation identification using X-ray computerized tomography (CT) images of gas hydrate (GH) experiments considering critical GH saturation (SGH,C) based on the machine-learning method of random forest. Eight GH samples were categorized into three low and five high GH saturation (SGH) groups. Mean square error of test results in the low and the high groups showed decreases of 37% and 33%, respectively, compared to that of the total eight. Additionally, a universal test set was configured from the total eight and tested with two trained machines for the low and high GH groups. Results revealed a boundary at ~50% of SGH signifying different saturation identification performance and the ~50% was estimated as SGH,C in this study. The trained machines for the low and high SGH groups had less performance on the larger and smaller values, respectively, of SGH,C. These findings conclude that we can take advantage of suitable separation of obtained training data, such as GH CT images, under the criteria of SGH,C. Moreover, the proposed data-driven method not only serves as a saturation identification method for GH samples in real time, but also provides a guideline to make decisions for data acquirement priorities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section L: Energy Sources)
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28 pages, 14236 KiB  
Article
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles: State of the Art and Perspectives
by Olivier Bethoux
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5843; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215843 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 65 | Viewed by 9944
Abstract
Driven by a small number of niche markets and several decades of application research, fuel cell systems (FCS) are gradually reaching maturity, to the point where many players are questioning the interest and intensity of its deployment in the transport sector in general. [...] Read more.
Driven by a small number of niche markets and several decades of application research, fuel cell systems (FCS) are gradually reaching maturity, to the point where many players are questioning the interest and intensity of its deployment in the transport sector in general. This article aims to shed light on this debate from the road transport perspective. It focuses on the description of the fuel cell vehicle (FCV) in order to understand its assets, limitations and current paths of progress. These vehicles are basically hybrid systems combining a fuel cell and a lithium-ion battery, and different architectures are emerging among manufacturers, who adopt very different levels of hybridization. The main opportunity of Fuel Cell Vehicles is clearly their design versatility based on the decoupling of the choice of the number of Fuel Cell modules and hydrogen tanks. This enables manufacturers to meet various specifications using standard products. Upcoming developments will be in line with the crucial advantage of Fuel Cell Vehicles: intensive use in terms of driving range and load capacity. Over the next few decades, long-distance heavy-duty vehicles and fleets of taxis or delivery vehicles will develop based on range extender or mild hybrid architectures and enable the hydrogen sector to mature the technology from niche markets to a large-scale market. Full article
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20 pages, 7517 KiB  
Article
In-Situ Stress Measurements at the Utah Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE) Site
by Pengju Xing, John McLennan and Joseph Moore
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5842; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215842 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 2983
Abstract
A scientific injection campaign was conducted at the Utah Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE) site in 2017 and 2019. The testing included pump-in/shut-in, pump-in/flowback, and step rate tests. Various methods have been employed to interpret the in-situ stress from the [...] Read more.
A scientific injection campaign was conducted at the Utah Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE) site in 2017 and 2019. The testing included pump-in/shut-in, pump-in/flowback, and step rate tests. Various methods have been employed to interpret the in-situ stress from the test dataset. This study focuses on methods to interpret the minimum in-situ stress from step rate, pump-in/extended shut-in tests data obtained during the stimulation of two zones in Well 58-32. This well was drilled in low-permeability granitoid. A temperature of 199 °C was recorded at the well’s total depth of 2297 m relative to the rotary Kelly bushing (RKB). The lower zone (Zone 1) consisted of 46 m of the openhole at the toe of the well. Fractures in the upper zone (Zone 2) were stimulated between 2123–2126 m measured depths (MD) behind the casing. The closure stress gradient variation depended on the depth and the injection chronology. The closure stress was found to increase with the pumping rate/volume. This stress variation could indicate that poroelastic effects (“back stress”) and the presence of adjacent natural fractures may play an important role in the interpretation of fracture closure stress. Further, progressively increasing local total stresses may, consequently, have practical applications when moderate volumes of fluid are injected in a naturally fractured or high-temperature reservoir. The alternative techniques that use pump-in/flowback tests and temperature signatures provide a valuable perspective view of the in-situ stress measurements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modelings and Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing in Reservoirs)
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25 pages, 3710 KiB  
Article
Technological Progress and Supply Base under Uncertain Market Conditions: The Case Study of the Taiwanese c-Si Solar Industry 2016–2019
by Wang Lai Wang and Marek Kryszak
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5841; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215841 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1936
Abstract
The recent years of the PV industry have been demarcated by a severe imbalance of manufacturing capacities versus demand. The goal of our research was to assess the technological progress and evolution of the Taiwanese c-Si PV supplier industry structure during the period [...] Read more.
The recent years of the PV industry have been demarcated by a severe imbalance of manufacturing capacities versus demand. The goal of our research was to assess the technological progress and evolution of the Taiwanese c-Si PV supplier industry structure during the period of 2016 to 2019 when the end-product experienced price volatility. The analysis was conducted based on data derived from Taiwanese manufacturers and industry sources with regard to current technological and market trends. We illuminate two main conclusions: the industry is advancing consolidation, and it is decreasing the pace of technological advancements, especially in comparison to its Chinese counterparts. The study suggests there is a need for improving efficiencies in the production processes, and shifting toward downstream segments in order to maximize the utilization of resources in the segments with the highest profit margins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Business in Renewable Energy Sources 2020)
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13 pages, 2841 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation and Energy Performance Simulation of Mongolian Ger with ETS Heater and Solar PV in Ulaanbaatar City
by Bat-Erdene Bayandelger, Yuzuru Ueda and Amarbayar Adiyabat
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5840; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215840 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2807
Abstract
There are approximately 200,000 households living in detached houses and gers (yurts) with small coal stoves that burn raw coal in Ulaanbaatar city. A proper heating system and improvement of the energy efficiency of residential dwellings are vitally important for Ulaanbaatar city to [...] Read more.
There are approximately 200,000 households living in detached houses and gers (yurts) with small coal stoves that burn raw coal in Ulaanbaatar city. A proper heating system and improvement of the energy efficiency of residential dwellings are vitally important for Ulaanbaatar city to reduce air pollution as well as for the operation of the current central energy system. This study shows the experimental results for two gers with two different heating systems and different thermal insulation, for investigating the merits of each. The technical feasibility of the system consisting of an electric thermal storage (ETS) heater with a daytime charging schedule and areal photovoltaic (PV) system was also examined by using a simulation with software developed in MATLAB (R2020a, MathWorks, USA). As a result of the experiment, the indoor comfort level and energy efficiency of the ger with added insulation and an ETS heater with nighttime charging were shown to be enhanced compared with those of the reference ger. The ger with added insulation and the ETS heater consumed 3169 kWh for electric appliances and 5989 kWh for the heating season. The simulation showed that the PV self-consumption rate is 76% for the Ger 2 with the ETS heater because of the daytime charging schedule of the ETS heater. The PV system supplied 31% of the total energy consumed, with the remaining 69% from the main grid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section G: Energy and Buildings)
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20 pages, 6700 KiB  
Article
Catchment Based Aerodynamic Performance Analysis of Small Wind Turbine Using a Single Blade Concept for a Low Cost of Energy
by Hailay Kiros Kelele, Torbjørn Kirstian Nielsen, Lars Froyd and Mulu Bayray Kahsay
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5838; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215838 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2488
Abstract
For low and medium wind conditions, there is a possibility to harness maximum wind potential reducing the cost of energy by employing catchment-based wind turbine designs. This paper aims to study catchment-based small wind turbine aerodynamic performance for improved efficiency and reduced cost [...] Read more.
For low and medium wind conditions, there is a possibility to harness maximum wind potential reducing the cost of energy by employing catchment-based wind turbine designs. This paper aims to study catchment-based small wind turbine aerodynamic performance for improved efficiency and reduced cost of energy. Hence, design parameters are considered based on specific conditions within a catchment area. The bins and statistical methods implemented with Weibull distribution of wind data for selected sites to characterize the wind conditions and a weighted average method proposed to create representative wind conditions implementing a single blade concept. The blade element method was applied using Matlab code (version R2017a, MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, US) for aerodynamic design and analysis, and computational fluid dynamics employed using ANSYS—Fluent (version 18.1, ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA) for validation. The performance of the designed blade is evaluated based on annual energy production, capacity factor and power coefficient. Then, for site-specific wind conditions, yearly energy production, and relative cost of energy are examined against rated power. Appropriate rated power for a low cost of energy identified and performance measures evaluated for each site. As a result, a maximum power coefficient of around 51.8% achieved at a design wind speed of 10 m/s, and higher capacity factors of 28% and 50.9% respectively attained for the low and high wind conditions at the proposed rated powers. Therefore, for different wind condition sites, enhanced performance at a low cost of energy could be achieved using a single blade concept at properly selected rated powers employing suitable design conditions and procedures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A3: Wind, Wave and Tidal Energy)
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16 pages, 8607 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modelling and Experimental Verification of the Low-Emission Biomass Combustion Process in a Domestic Boiler with Flue Gas Flow around the Combustion Chamber
by Przemysław Motyl, Danuta Król, Sławomir Poskrobko and Marek Juszczak
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5837; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215837 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3083
Abstract
The paper presents the results of numerical and experimental studies aimed at developing a new design of a 10 kW low-emission heating boiler fired with wood pellets. The boiler is to meet stringent requirements in terms of efficiency (η > 90%) and emissions [...] Read more.
The paper presents the results of numerical and experimental studies aimed at developing a new design of a 10 kW low-emission heating boiler fired with wood pellets. The boiler is to meet stringent requirements in terms of efficiency (η > 90%) and emissions per 10% O2: CO < 500 mg/Nm3, NOx ≤ 200 mg/Nm3, and dust ≤ 20 mg/Nm3; these emission restrictions are as prescribed in the applicable ECODESIGN Directive in the European Union countries. An innovative aspect of the boiler structure (not yet present in domestic boilers) is the circular flow of exhaust gases around the centrally placed combustion chamber. The use of such a solution ensures high-efficiency, low-emission combustion and meeting the requirements of ECODESIGN. The results of the numerical calculations were verified and confirmed experimentally, obtaining average emission values of the limited gases CO = 91 mg/Nm3, and NOx = 197 mg/Nm3. The temperature measured in the furnace is 450–500 °C and in the flue it was 157–197 °C. The determined boiler efficiency was 92%. Numerical calculations were made with the use of an advanced CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) workshop in the form of the Ansys programming and a computing environment with the dominant participation of the Fluent module. It was shown that the results obtained in both experiments are sufficiently convergent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Combustion Systems and Their Impact)
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16 pages, 2405 KiB  
Article
A Study of Design Variables in Daylight and Energy Performance in Residential Buildings under Hot Climates
by Ali Mohammed AL-Dossary and Daeung Danny Kim
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5836; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215836 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2765
Abstract
In Saudi Arabia, residential buildings are one of the major contributors to total energy consumption. Even though there are abundant natural resources, it is somewhat difficult to apply them to building designs, as design variables, due to slow progress and private issues in [...] Read more.
In Saudi Arabia, residential buildings are one of the major contributors to total energy consumption. Even though there are abundant natural resources, it is somewhat difficult to apply them to building designs, as design variables, due to slow progress and private issues in Saudi Arabia. Thus, the present study demonstrated the development of sustainable residential building design by examining the daylighting and energy performance with design variables. Focusing on the daylighting system, the design variables were chosen, including window-to-wall ratios (WWR), external shading devices, and types of glazing. The illuminance level by these design variables in a building was evaluated by using daylight metrics, such as spatial daylight autonomy and annual sunlight exposure. Moreover, the building energy consumption with these design variables was analyzed by using energy simulation. As a result, the daylighting was improved with the increase in WWRs and the tinted double glazing, while these design options can cause overheating in a residential building. Among types of glazing, the double pane windows with a low-E coating showed better energy performance. Based on the results, it is necessary to find the proper design variables that can balance the daylighting and energy performance in residential buildings in hot climates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings Energy Efficiency and Innovative Energy Systems)
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19 pages, 7473 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modeling of Ejector and Development of Improved Methods for the Design of Ejector-Assisted Refrigeration System
by Hafiz Ali Muhammad, Hafiz Muhammad Abdullah, Zabdur Rehman, Beomjoon Lee, Young-Jin Baik, Jongjae Cho, Muhammad Imran, Manzar Masud, Mohsin Saleem and Muhammad Shoaib Butt
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5835; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215835 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3279
Abstract
An ejector is a simple mechanical device that can be integrated with power generation or the refrigeration cycle to enhance their performance. Owing to the complex flow behavior in the ejector, the performance prediction of the ejector is done by numerical simulations. However, [...] Read more.
An ejector is a simple mechanical device that can be integrated with power generation or the refrigeration cycle to enhance their performance. Owing to the complex flow behavior in the ejector, the performance prediction of the ejector is done by numerical simulations. However, to evaluate the performance of an ejector integrated power cycle or refrigeration cycle, the need for simpler and more reliable thermodynamic models to estimate the performance of the ejector persists. This research, therefore, aims at developing a single mathematical correlation that can predict the ejector performance with reasonable accuracy. The proposed correlation relates the entrainment ratio and the pressure rise across the ejector to the area ratio and the mass flow rate of the primary flow. R141b is selected as the ejector refrigerant, and the results obtained through the proposed correlation are validated through numerical solutions. The comparison between the analytical and numerical with experimental results provided an error of less than 8.4% and 4.29%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Low-Temperature Thermodynamic Power Cycles)
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25 pages, 9006 KiB  
Article
Pawpaw (Carica papaya) Peel Waste as a Novel Green Heterogeneous Catalyst for Moringa Oil Methyl Esters Synthesis: Process Optimization and Kinetic Study
by Babatunde Oladipo, Tunde V Ojumu, Lekan M Latinwo and Eriola Betiku
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5834; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215834 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4547
Abstract
This study evaluated pawpaw (Carica papaya) peel ash as a green solid base catalyst for Moringa oleifera oil methyl esters (MOOME) production. Taguchi orthogonal array approach was used to examine the impact of vital process input variables (calcined pawpaw peel (CPP) [...] Read more.
This study evaluated pawpaw (Carica papaya) peel ash as a green solid base catalyst for Moringa oleifera oil methyl esters (MOOME) production. Taguchi orthogonal array approach was used to examine the impact of vital process input variables (calcined pawpaw peel (CPP) loading, reaction temperature, methanol-to-M. oleifera oil (MeOH:MOO) molar ratio and reaction time) on the MOOME yield. Catalytic potency potential of the CPP was evaluated by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. The results obtained indicate that the CPP consists of nanoparticles and alkaline elements K (23.89 wt.%), Ca (2.86 wt.%) and Mg (1.00 wt.%). The high values of coefficient of determination, R2 (0.9992) and adjusted R2 (0.9968) as well as the low value of the coefficient of variation (0.31%) for the model developed indicate it can be used to sufficiently describe the transesterification process. MOOME yield of 96.43 ± 0.10 wt.% was achieved at the optimum values of 3.5 wt.% CPP loading, 9:1 MeOH:MOO molar ratio, 35 °C reaction temperature and 40 min reaction time. The kinetic modeling of the transesterification process determined the reaction rate constant and overall reaction order as 0.20465 L·mol−1·s−1 and 2, respectively. The results of this study demonstrate both CPP and MOO are feasible renewable resources for MOOME production. The kinetic data generated may be useful in reactor design for the transesterification process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A4: Bio-Energy)
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17 pages, 2776 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Performance of Various Energy Sources Used in the Czech Republic
by Markéta Šerešová, Jiří Štefanica, Monika Vitvarová, Kristina Zakuciová, Petr Wolf and Vladimír Kočí
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5833; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215833 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2787
Abstract
As both the human population and living standards grow, so does the worldwide electricity demand. However, the power sector is also one of the biggest environmental polluters. Therefore, options are currently being sought aimed at reducing environmental impacts, one of the potential tools [...] Read more.
As both the human population and living standards grow, so does the worldwide electricity demand. However, the power sector is also one of the biggest environmental polluters. Therefore, options are currently being sought aimed at reducing environmental impacts, one of the potential tools for which concerns the use of life cycle assessment. This study, therefore, focuses on the most commonly used nonrenewable (black coal, lignite, natural gas and nuclear) and renewable sources (wind, hydro and photovoltaic) in the Czech Republic in terms of their construction, operation, and decommissioning periods. Environmental impacts are assessed via the use of selected impact categories by way of product environmental footprint methodology. The results highlight the potential environmental impacts associated with electricity generation for each of the primary energy sources. Black coal and lignite power plants were found to contribute most to the global warming, resource use, energy carriers and respiratory inorganics categories. On the other hand, the impact on water depletion and resource use, mineral and metals categories were found to be most significantly affected by the production of electricity from photovoltaic power plants. Finally, it is proposed that the results be employed to design scenarios for the future energy mix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
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18 pages, 7615 KiB  
Article
Fluctuation Suppression of DC-Link Voltage Using Control of Converters Connected with DC Distributed Generation
by Sang-Jae Choi and Sung-Hun Lim
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5832; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215832 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2669
Abstract
Due to the increase in DC load and DC Power generation, the need for DC power system is emerging. Accordingly, FRT (fault ride through) and LVRT (low voltage ride through), which are related regulations for renewable energy sources, have been enacted, and operation [...] Read more.
Due to the increase in DC load and DC Power generation, the need for DC power system is emerging. Accordingly, FRT (fault ride through) and LVRT (low voltage ride through), which are related regulations for renewable energy sources, have been enacted, and operation algorithms of each converter are required for this. However, the operation of the converter according to LVRT regulations causes DC voltage fluctuations. In the current study, DC voltage fluctuation is suppressed through converter control of DC-linked battery. The controller was designed from the relational equation between DC voltage and instantaneous power of battery. The pattern of DC voltage fluctuations to the output of the PV (photovoltaic), which is a DC power generation source, was confirmed, and voltage fluctuation suppression was verified by applying the designed converter cooperation algorithm and controller. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids)
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29 pages, 18195 KiB  
Article
Numerical Investigation of Performance and Flow Characteristics of a Tunnel Ventilation Axial Fan with Thickness Profile Treatments of NACA Airfoil
by Yong-In Kim, Sang-Yeol Lee, Kyoung-Yong Lee, Sang-Ho Yang and Young-Seok Choi
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5831; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215831 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2839
Abstract
An axial flow fan, which is applied for ventilation in underground spaces such as tunnels, features a medium–large size, and most of the blades go through the casting process in consideration of mass production and cost. In the casting process, post-work related to [...] Read more.
An axial flow fan, which is applied for ventilation in underground spaces such as tunnels, features a medium–large size, and most of the blades go through the casting process in consideration of mass production and cost. In the casting process, post-work related to roughness treatment is essential, and this is a final operation to determine the thickness profile of an airfoil which is designed from the empirical equation. In this study, the effect of the thickness profile of an airfoil on the performance and aerodynamic characteristics of the axial fan was examined through numerical analysis with the commercial code, ANSYS CFX. In order to conduct the sensitivity analysis on the effect of the maximum thickness position for each span on the performance at the design flow rate, the design of experiments (DOE) method was applied with a full factorial design as an additional attempt. The energy loss near the shroud span was confirmed with a quantified value for the tip leakage flow (TLF) rate through the tip clearance, and the trajectory of the TLF was observed on the two-dimensional (2D) coordinates system. The trajectory of the TLF matched well with the tendency of the calculated angle and correlated with the intensity of the turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) distribution. However, a correlation between the TLF rate and TKE could not be established. Meanwhile, the Q-criterion method was applied to specifically initiate the distribution of flow separation and inlet recirculation. The location accompanying the energy loss was mutually confirmed with the axial coordinates. Additionally, the nonuniform blade loading distribution, which was more severe as the maximum thickness position moved toward the leading edge (LE), could be improved significantly as the thickness near the trailing edge (TE) became thinner. The validation for the numerical analysis results was performed through a model-sized experimental test. Full article
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19 pages, 759 KiB  
Article
Consumers’ Intention and Cognition for Low-Carbon Behavior: A Case Study of Hangzhou in China
by Yongliang Yang, Yiyang Guo and Suqing Luo
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5830; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215830 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2719
Abstract
The influencing factors of the low-carbon consumption behavior of urban residents have become popular. This paper explored the factors of consumers’ low-carbon behavior through a questionnaire survey. Using Hangzhou as a case study city, which yields 786 valid responses, the results indicated that [...] Read more.
The influencing factors of the low-carbon consumption behavior of urban residents have become popular. This paper explored the factors of consumers’ low-carbon behavior through a questionnaire survey. Using Hangzhou as a case study city, which yields 786 valid responses, the results indicated that urban consumers generally had a high perception of low-carbon behavior. At the same time, low-carbon cognition and low-carbon intention had a positive impact on residents’ low-carbon behavior. In particular, the level of awareness of global warming adjusted residents’ understanding of low-carbon behavior. From a policy point of view, this research contributes to insights into the promotion of guiding residents’ low-carbon behavior and improving the response to global warming. Full article
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13 pages, 2437 KiB  
Article
Energy and Resource Efficiency in Apatite-Nepheline Ore Waste Processing Using the Digital Twin Approach
by Maksim Dli, Andrei Puchkov, Valery Meshalkin, Ildar Abdeev, Rail Saitov and Rinat Abdeev
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5829; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215829 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2343
Abstract
The paper presents a structure of the digital environment as an integral part of the “digital twin” technology, and stipulates the research to be carried out towards an energy and recourse efficiency technology assessment of phosphorus production from apatite-nepheline ore waste. The problem [...] Read more.
The paper presents a structure of the digital environment as an integral part of the “digital twin” technology, and stipulates the research to be carried out towards an energy and recourse efficiency technology assessment of phosphorus production from apatite-nepheline ore waste. The problem with their processing is acute in the regions of the Russian Arctic shelf, where a large number of mining and processing plants are concentrated; therefore, the study and creation of energy-efficient systems for ore waste disposal is an urgent scientific problem. The subject of the study is the infoware for monitoring phosphorus production. The applied study methods are based on systems theory and system analysis, technical cybernetics, machine learning technologies as well as numerical experiments. The usage of “digital twin” elements to increase the energy and resource efficiency of phosphorus production is determined by the desire to minimize the costs of production modernization by introducing advanced algorithms and computer architectures. The algorithmic part of the proposed tools for energy and resource efficiency optimization is based on the deep neural network apparatus and a previously developed mathematical description of the thermophysical, thermodynamic, chemical, and hydrodynamic processes occurring in the phosphorus production system. The ensemble application of deep neural networks allows for multichannel control over the phosphorus technology process and the implementation of continuous additional training for the networks during the technological system operation, creating a high-precision digital copy, which is used to determine control actions and optimize energy and resource consumption. Algorithmic and software elements are developed for the digital environment, and the results of simulation experiments are presented. The main contribution of the conducted research consists of the proposed structure for technological information processing to optimize the phosphorus production system according to the criteria of energy and resource efficiency, as well as the developed software that implements the optimization parameters of this system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Control for Future Systems)
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17 pages, 6882 KiB  
Article
Effect of Diatomaceous Biosilica and Talc on the Properties of Dielectric Elastomer Based Composites
by Ewa Olewnik-Kruszkowska, Weronika Brzozowska, Arkadiusz Adamczyk, Magdalena Gierszewska, Izabela Wojtczak and Myroslav Sprynskyy
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5828; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215828 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2198
Abstract
Currently, scientists are still looking for new polymeric materials characterized by improved mechanical, thermal as well as dielectric properties. Moreover, it should be stressed that new composites should be environmentally friendly. For this reason, the aim of this work is to establish the [...] Read more.
Currently, scientists are still looking for new polymeric materials characterized by improved mechanical, thermal as well as dielectric properties. Moreover, it should be stressed that new composites should be environmentally friendly. For this reason, the aim of this work is to establish the influence of natural fillers in the form of diatomaceous biosilica (B) and talc (T) on the properties of dielectric elastomer (DE)-based composites. The dielectric elastomer-based materials have been tested taking into account their morphology, thermal and mechanical properties. Moreover, the dielectric constant of the obtained materials was evaluated. Obtained results revealed that the presence of both diatomaceous biosilica and talc significantly increases dielectric properties while having no significant effect on the mechanical properties of the obtained composites. It should be stressed that the performed analyses constitute a valuable source of knowledge on the effective modification of the thermal and dielectric properties of newly obtained materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Composite Materials for Energy Devices)
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13 pages, 3028 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study of Three-Bed Adsorption Chiller with Desalination Function
by Karol Sztekler, Wojciech Kalawa, Wojciech Nowak, Lukasz Mika, Slawomir Gradziel, Jaroslaw Krzywanski and Ewelina Radomska
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5827; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215827 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 2357
Abstract
Energy efficiency is one of the most important topics nowadays. It is strictly related to energy demand, energy policy, environmental pollution, and economic issues. Energy efficiency can be increased and operating costs reduced by using waste heat from other processes. One of the [...] Read more.
Energy efficiency is one of the most important topics nowadays. It is strictly related to energy demand, energy policy, environmental pollution, and economic issues. Energy efficiency can be increased and operating costs reduced by using waste heat from other processes. One of the possibilities is to use sorption chillers to produce chilled water and desalinated water. Low-temperature waste heat is not easy to utilize because of the low energy potential. Using adsorption chillers in low-temperature conditions allows utilizing waste heat and producing useful products in many regions of the world. The paper presents the results of an experimental study carried out on a three-bed adsorption chiller with desalination function, using silica gel and water as a working pair. The laboratory test stand included one evaporator, one condenser, and three separate tanks for water, desalinated water, and brine, respectively. The test stands scheme and description were presented. All results were obtained during several test hours with stable temperature conditions in the range of 57–85 °C for the heating water. It is found that the Coefficient of Performance (COP) increased from 0.20 to 0.58 when the heating water temperature increased from 57 to 85 °C. A similar finding is reported for Specific Cooling Power (SCP), which increased from 27 to 160 W/kg as the heating water temperature increased from 57 to 85 °C. It can be concluded that the heating water temperature strongly impacts the performance of the adsorption chiller. Full article
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16 pages, 1712 KiB  
Article
Economic Energy Efficiency of Food Production Systems
by Bartłomiej Bajan, Aldona Mrówczyńska-Kamińska and Walenty Poczta
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5826; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215826 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3171
Abstract
The current global population growth forecast carries with it a global increase in demand for food. In order to meet this demand, it is necessary to increase production, which requires an increase in energy consumption. However, forecasted energy production growth is insufficient and [...] Read more.
The current global population growth forecast carries with it a global increase in demand for food. In order to meet this demand, it is necessary to increase production, which requires an increase in energy consumption. However, forecasted energy production growth is insufficient and traditional sources of energy are limited; hence, it is necessary to strive for greater energy efficiency in food production systems. The study aimed to compare the economic energy efficiency of food production systems in selected countries and identify the sources of diversification in this field. As a measure of energy efficiency, the indicators of the energy intensity of food production were used in this study. To calculate these indicators, a method based on input-output life-cycle assessment assumptions was used, which enables researchers to obtain fully comparable results between countries. The study showed that despite an increase in energy consumption in the food production systems of the analyzed countries by an average of 27%, from 19.3 EJ to 24.5 EJ, from 2000 to 2014, their energy intensity decreased, on average, by more than 18%, from 8.5 MJ/USD to 6.9 MJ/USD. This means that energy efficiency improvements are possible even under conditions of increased energy consumption, which in turn, means that food production can increase significantly. In the case of developed countries, the main inefficiencies are found in agricultural production, while in developing countries, they are observed in the food industry. Decision-makers should also pay attention to the high level of energy intensity that results from the supply of inputs to agriculture and the food industry because there is great potential for the improvement of energy efficiency in this field, especially because energy consumption associated with supply constitutes a major part of total consumption in the food production systems of developed countries. Full article
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28 pages, 3457 KiB  
Review
Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Degradation Mechanisms and Their Diagnosis by Frequency Response Analysis Methods: A Review
by Antonio Sorrentino, Kai Sundmacher and Tanja Vidakovic-Koch
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5825; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215825 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 4925
Abstract
Several experimental techniques involving dynamic electrical variables are used to study the complex behaviour of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells in order to improve performance and durability. Among them, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is one of the most employed methods. Like any frequency [...] Read more.
Several experimental techniques involving dynamic electrical variables are used to study the complex behaviour of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells in order to improve performance and durability. Among them, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is one of the most employed methods. Like any frequency response analysis (FRA) methodology, EIS enables one to separate the contribution of many processes to performance losses. However, it fails to identify processes with a similar time constant and the interpretation of EIS spectra is often ambiguous. In the last decade, alternative FRA methodologies based on non-electrical inputs and/or outputs have been developed. These studies were mainly driven by requirements for a better diagnosis of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) faulty operation conditions as well as better component and material design. In this contribution, a state-of-the-art EIS and novel FRA techniques for PEMFC diagnosis are summarised. First, common degradation mechanisms and their causes are discussed. A mathematical framework based on linear system theory of time invariant systems is described in order to explain the theoretical implications of the use of different input/output configurations. In relation to this, the concepts and potential are depicted as well as the problematic aspects and future prospective of these diagnostic approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Systems)
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21 pages, 7948 KiB  
Article
Numerical Calculation and Uncertain Optimization of Energy Conversion in Interior Ballistics Stage
by Tong Xin, Guolai Yang, Liqun Wang and Quanzhao Sun
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5824; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215824 - 07 Nov 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2261
Abstract
Gun firing is a process that converts propellant chemical energy to projectile kinetic energy and other kinds of energies. In order to explore the energy conversion process, firstly, the interior ballistics mathematical model and the barrel-projectile finite element model are built and solved. [...] Read more.
Gun firing is a process that converts propellant chemical energy to projectile kinetic energy and other kinds of energies. In order to explore the energy conversion process, firstly, the interior ballistics mathematical model and the barrel-projectile finite element model are built and solved. Then, the related variable values and energy values are obtained and discussed. Finally, for improving energy efficiency, the interval uncertainty optimization problem is modeled, and then solved using the two-layer nested optimization strategy and back-propagation (BP) neural network surrogate model. Calculation results show that, after optimization, the heat efficiency raises from 31.13% to 33.05% and the max rifling stress decreases from 893.68 to 859.76 Mpa, which would improve the firing performance and prolong the lifetime of the gun barrel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modelling of Thermal and Energy Systems)
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