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Sensors, Volume 9, Issue 6 (June 2009) – 56 articles , Pages 4022-5039

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607 KiB  
Article
A Hop-Count Analysis Scheme for Avoiding Wormhole Attacks in MANET
by Shang-Ming Jen, Chi-Sung Laih and Wen-Chung Kuo
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 5022-5039; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90605022 - 24 Jun 2009
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 16413
Abstract
MANET, due to the nature of wireless transmission, has more security issues compared to wired environments. A specific type of attack, the Wormhole attack does not require exploiting any nodes in the network and can interfere with the route establishment process. Instead of [...] Read more.
MANET, due to the nature of wireless transmission, has more security issues compared to wired environments. A specific type of attack, the Wormhole attack does not require exploiting any nodes in the network and can interfere with the route establishment process. Instead of detecting wormholes from the role of administrators as in previous methods, we implement a new protocol, MHA, using a hop-count analysis from the viewpoint of users without any special environment assumptions. We also discuss previous works which require the role of administrator and their reliance on impractical assumptions, thus showing the advantages of MHA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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2035 KiB  
Article
Study of Alternative GPS Network Meteorological Sensors in Taiwan: Case Studies of the Plum Rains and Typhoon Sinlaku
by Kai-Wei Chiang, Wei-Chih Peng, Yen-Hua Yeh and Kwo-Hwa Chen
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 5001-5021; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90605001 - 24 Jun 2009
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 15630
Abstract
Plum rains and typhoons are important weather systems in the Taiwan region. They can cause huge economic losses, but they are also considered as important water resources as they strike Taiwan annually and fill the reservoirs around the island. There are many meteorological [...] Read more.
Plum rains and typhoons are important weather systems in the Taiwan region. They can cause huge economic losses, but they are also considered as important water resources as they strike Taiwan annually and fill the reservoirs around the island. There are many meteorological sensors available for investigating the characteristics of weather and climate systems. Recently, the use of GPS as an alternative meteorological sensor has become popular due to the catastrophic impact of global climate change. GPS provides meteorological parameters mainly from the atmosphere. Precise Point Positioning (PPP) is a proven algorithm that has attracted attention in GPS related studies. This study uses GPS measurements collected at more than fifty reference stations of the e-GPS network in Taiwan. The first data set was collected from June 1st 2008 to June 7th 2008, which corresponds to the middle of the plum rain season in Taiwan. The second data set was collected from September 11th to September 17th 2008 during the landfall of typhoon Sinlaku. The data processing strategy is to process the measurements collected at the reference stations of the e-GPS network using the PPP technique to estimate the zenith tropospheric delay (ZTD) values of the sites; thus, the correlations between the ZTD values and the variation of rainfall during the plum rains and typhoon are analyzed. In addition, several characteristics of the meteorological events are identified using spatial and temporal analyses of the ZTD values estimated with the GPS network PPP technique. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Algorithms)
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377 KiB  
Article
Design of a Smart Ultrasonic Transducer for Interconnecting Machine Applications
by Tian-Hong Yan, Wei Wang, Xue-Dong Chen, Qing Li and Chang Xu
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4986-5000; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604986 - 24 Jun 2009
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 17097
Abstract
A high-frequency ultrasonic transducer for copper or gold wire bonding has been designed, analyzed, prototyped and tested. Modeling techniques were used in the design phase and a practical design procedure was established and used. The transducer was decomposed into its elementary components. For [...] Read more.
A high-frequency ultrasonic transducer for copper or gold wire bonding has been designed, analyzed, prototyped and tested. Modeling techniques were used in the design phase and a practical design procedure was established and used. The transducer was decomposed into its elementary components. For each component, an initial design was obtained with simulations using a finite elements model (FEM). Simulated ultrasonic modules were built and characterized experimentally through the Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV) and electrical resonance spectra. Compared with experimental data, the FEM could be iteratively adjusted and updated. Having achieved a remarkably highly-predictive FEM of the whole transducer, the design parameters could be tuned for the desired applications, then the transducer is fixed on the wire bonder with a complete holder clamping was calculated by the FEM. The approach to mount ultrasonic transducers on wire bonding machines also is of major importance for wire bonding in modern electronic packaging. The presented method can lead to obtaining a nearly complete decoupling clamper design of the transducer to the wire bonder. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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1272 KiB  
Review
Metal Oxides and Ion-Exchanging Surfaces as pH Sensors in Liquids: State-of-the-Art and Outlook
by Peter Kurzweil
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4955-4985; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604955 - 23 Jun 2009
Cited by 171 | Viewed by 20460
Abstract
Novel applications of online pH determinations at temperatures from -35 °C to 130 °C in technical and biological media, which are all but ideal aqueous solutions, require new approaches to pH monitoring. The glass electrode, introduced nearly hundred years ago, and [...] Read more.
Novel applications of online pH determinations at temperatures from -35 °C to 130 °C in technical and biological media, which are all but ideal aqueous solutions, require new approaches to pH monitoring. The glass electrode, introduced nearly hundred years ago, and chemical sensors based on field effect transistors (ISFET) show specific drawbacks with respect to handling and long-time stability. Proton sensitive metal oxides seem to be a promising and alternative to the state-of-the-art measuring methods, and might overcome some problems of classical hydrogen electrodes and reference electrodes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Germany)
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703 KiB  
Article
Improving Temporal Coverage of an Energy-Efficient Data Extraction Algorithm for Environmental Monitoring Using Wireless Sensor Networks
by Supriyo Chatterjea and Paul Havinga
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4941-4954; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604941 - 23 Jun 2009
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 13937
Abstract
Collecting raw data from a wireless sensor network for environmental monitoring applications can be a difficult task due to the high energy consumption involved. This is especially difficult when the application requires specialized sensors that have very high energy consumption, e.g. hydrological sensors [...] Read more.
Collecting raw data from a wireless sensor network for environmental monitoring applications can be a difficult task due to the high energy consumption involved. This is especially difficult when the application requires specialized sensors that have very high energy consumption, e.g. hydrological sensors for monitoring marine environments. This paper introduces a technique for reducing energy consumption by minimizing sensor sampling operations. In addition, we illustrate how a randomized algorithm can be used to improve temporal coverage such that the time between the occurrence of an event and its detection can be minimized. We evaluate our approach using real data collected from a sensor network deployment on the Great Barrier Reef. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Workshop Sensing A Changing World)
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2398 KiB  
Article
CoCMA: Energy-Efficient Coverage Control in Cluster-Based Wireless Sensor Networks Using a Memetic Algorithm
by Joe-Air Jiang, Chia-Pang Chen, Cheng-Long Chuang, Tzu-Shiang Lin, Chwan-Lu Tseng, En-Cheng Yang and Yung-Chung Wang
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4918-4940; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604918 - 22 Jun 2009
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 17297
Abstract
Deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has drawn much attention in recent years. Given the limited energy for sensor nodes, it is critical to implement WSNs with energy efficiency designs. Sensing coverage in networks, on the other hand, may degrade gradually over time [...] Read more.
Deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has drawn much attention in recent years. Given the limited energy for sensor nodes, it is critical to implement WSNs with energy efficiency designs. Sensing coverage in networks, on the other hand, may degrade gradually over time after WSNs are activated. For mission-critical applications, therefore, energy-efficient coverage control should be taken into consideration to support the quality of service (QoS) of WSNs. Usually, coverage-controlling strategies present some challenging problems: (1) resolving the conflicts while determining which nodes should be turned off to conserve energy; (2) designing an optimal wake-up scheme that avoids awakening more nodes than necessary. In this paper, we implement an energy-efficient coverage control in cluster-based WSNs using a Memetic Algorithm (MA)-based approach, entitled CoCMA, to resolve the challenging problems. The CoCMA contains two optimization strategies: a MA-based schedule for sensor nodes and a wake-up scheme, which are responsible to prolong the network lifetime while maintaining coverage preservation. The MA-based schedule is applied to a given WSN to avoid unnecessary energy consumption caused by the redundant nodes. During the network operation, the wake-up scheme awakens sleeping sensor nodes to recover coverage hole caused by dead nodes. The performance evaluation of the proposed CoCMA was conducted on a cluster-based WSN (CWSN) under either a random or a uniform deployment of sensor nodes. Simulation results show that the performance yielded by the combination of MA and wake-up scheme is better than that in some existing approaches. Furthermore, CoCMA is able to activate fewer sensor nodes to monitor the required sensing area.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Algorithms)
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192 KiB  
Review
Distributed Joint Source-Channel Coding in Wireless Sensor Networks
by Xuqi Zhu, Yu Liu and Lin Zhang
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4901-4917; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604901 - 22 Jun 2009
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 17138
Abstract
Considering the fact that sensors are energy-limited and the wireless channel conditions in wireless sensor networks, there is an urgent need for a low-complexity coding method with high compression ratio and noise-resisted features. This paper reviews the progress made in distributed joint source-channel [...] Read more.
Considering the fact that sensors are energy-limited and the wireless channel conditions in wireless sensor networks, there is an urgent need for a low-complexity coding method with high compression ratio and noise-resisted features. This paper reviews the progress made in distributed joint source-channel coding which can address this issue. The main existing deployments, from the theory to practice, of distributed joint source-channel coding over the independent channels, the multiple access channels and the broadcast channels are introduced, respectively. To this end, we also present a practical scheme for compressing multiple correlated sources over the independent channels. The simulation results demonstrate the desired efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Technologies and Applications)
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520 KiB  
Article
A Novel Label-Free Optical Biosensor Using Synthetic Oligonucleotides from E. coli O157:H7: Elementary Sensitivity Tests
by Zehra Banu Bahşi, Aligül Büyükaksoy, Sinan Mert Ölmezcan, Fethi Şimşek, Muhammed Hasan Aslan and Ahmet Yavuz Oral
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4890-4900; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604890 - 19 Jun 2009
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 12019
Abstract
SiO2-TiO2 thin films for use as fiber optic guiding layers of optical DNA biosensors were fabricated by the sol-gel dip coating technique. The chemical structure and the surface morphology of the films were characterized before immobilization. Single probe DNA strands [...] Read more.
SiO2-TiO2 thin films for use as fiber optic guiding layers of optical DNA biosensors were fabricated by the sol-gel dip coating technique. The chemical structure and the surface morphology of the films were characterized before immobilization. Single probe DNA strands were immobilized on the surface and the porosity of the films before the hybridization process was measured. Refractive index values of the films were measured using a Metricon 2010 prism coupler. On the surface of each film, 12 different spots were taken for measurement and calculation of the mean refractive index values with their standard deviations. The increased refractive index values after the immobilization of single DNA strands indicated that immobilization was successfully achieved. A further refractive index increase after the hybridization with target single DNA strands showed the possibility of detection of the E. coli O157:H7 EDL933 species using strands of 20-mers (5’-TAATATCGGTTGCGGAGGTG -3’) sequence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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334 KiB  
Article
Applications of Remote Sensing to Alien Invasive Plant Studies
by Cho-ying Huang and Gregory P. Asner
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4869-4889; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604869 - 19 Jun 2009
Cited by 217 | Viewed by 25184
Abstract
Biological invasions can affect ecosystems across a wide spectrum of bioclimatic conditions. Therefore, it is often important to systematically monitor the spread of species over a broad region. Remote sensing has been an important tool for large-scale ecological studies in the past three [...] Read more.
Biological invasions can affect ecosystems across a wide spectrum of bioclimatic conditions. Therefore, it is often important to systematically monitor the spread of species over a broad region. Remote sensing has been an important tool for large-scale ecological studies in the past three decades, but it was not commonly used to study alien invasive plants until the mid 1990s. We synthesize previous research efforts on remote sensing of invasive plants from spatial, temporal and spectral perspectives. We also highlight a recently developed state-of-the-art image fusion technique that integrates passive and active energies concurrently collected by an imaging spectrometer and a scanning-waveform light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system, respectively. This approach provides a means to detect the structure and functional properties of invasive plants of different canopy levels. Finally, we summarize regional studies of biological invasions using remote sensing, discuss the limitations of remote sensing approaches, and highlight current research needs and future directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Algorithms)
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1087 KiB  
Article
On the Relevance of Using OpenWireless Sensor Networks in Environment Monitoring
by Antoine B. Bagula, Gordon Inggs, Simon Scott and Marco Zennaro
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4845-4868; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604845 - 19 Jun 2009
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 16153
Abstract
This paper revisits the problem of the readiness for field deployments of wireless- sensor networks by assessing the relevance of using Open Hardware and Software motes for environment monitoring. We propose a new prototype wireless sensor network that finetunes SquidBee motes to improve [...] Read more.
This paper revisits the problem of the readiness for field deployments of wireless- sensor networks by assessing the relevance of using Open Hardware and Software motes for environment monitoring. We propose a new prototype wireless sensor network that finetunes SquidBee motes to improve the life-time and sensing performance of an environment monitoring system that measures temperature, humidity and luminosity. Building upon two outdoor sensing scenarios, we evaluate the performance of the newly proposed energy-aware prototype solution in terms of link quality when expressed by the Received Signal Strength, Packet Loss and the battery lifetime. The experimental results reveal the relevance of using the Open Hardware and Software motes when setting up outdoor wireless sensor networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Technologies and Applications)
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373 KiB  
Article
Medium Access Control for Opportunistic Concurrent Transmissions under Shadowing Channels
by In Keun Son, Shiwen Mao and Seung Min Hur
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4824-4844; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604824 - 18 Jun 2009
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 14102
Abstract
We study the problem of how to alleviate the exposed terminal effect in multihop wireless networks in the presence of log-normal shadowing channels. Assuming node location information, we propose an extension of the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol that schedules concurrent transmissions in the [...] Read more.
We study the problem of how to alleviate the exposed terminal effect in multihop wireless networks in the presence of log-normal shadowing channels. Assuming node location information, we propose an extension of the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol that schedules concurrent transmissions in the presence of log-normal shadowing, thus mitigating the exposed terminal problem and improving network throughput and delay performance. We observe considerable improvements in throughput and delay achieved over the IEEE 802.11 MAC under various network topologies and channel conditions in ns-2 simulations, which justify the importance of considering channel randomness in MAC protocol design for multihop wireless networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Technologies and Applications)
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144 KiB  
Review
Microfluidic Systems for Pathogen Sensing: A Review
by Jürgen Mairhofer, Kriemhilt Roppert and Peter Ertl
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4804-4823; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604804 - 17 Jun 2009
Cited by 248 | Viewed by 25731
Abstract
Rapid pathogen sensing remains a pressing issue today since conventional identification methodsare tedious, cost intensive and time consuming, typically requiring from 48 to 72 h. In turn, chip based technologies, such as microarrays and microfluidic biochips, offer real alternatives capable of filling this [...] Read more.
Rapid pathogen sensing remains a pressing issue today since conventional identification methodsare tedious, cost intensive and time consuming, typically requiring from 48 to 72 h. In turn, chip based technologies, such as microarrays and microfluidic biochips, offer real alternatives capable of filling this technological gap. In particular microfluidic biochips make the development of fast, sensitive and portable diagnostic tools possible, thus promising rapid and accurate detection of a variety of pathogens. This paper will provide a broad overview of the novel achievements in the field of pathogen sensing by focusing on methods and devices that compliment microfluidics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogen Sensors)
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195 KiB  
Article
Effect of Cadmium Chloride on Metallothionein Levels in Carp
by Jana Kovarova, Rene Kizek, Vojtech Adam, Danka Harustiakova, Olga Celechovska and Zdenka Svobodova
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4789-4803; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604789 - 17 Jun 2009
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 13048
Abstract
Due to anthropogenic activities, heavy metals still represent a threat for various trophic levels. If aquatic animals are exposed to heavy metals, we can obviously observe considerable toxicity. It is well known that organisms treated with heavy metals synthesize low molecular mass compounds [...] Read more.
Due to anthropogenic activities, heavy metals still represent a threat for various trophic levels. If aquatic animals are exposed to heavy metals, we can obviously observe considerable toxicity. It is well known that organisms treated with heavy metals synthesize low molecular mass compounds rich in cysteine. In this work the effects of cadmium chloride (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mg/L) on common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was investigated. We determined cadmium content in tissue of muscle, liver and kidney by atomic absorption spectrometry with electrothermal atomization and content of metallothionein (MT) in the same tissues by the Brdicka reaction. Electrochemical methods can be considered as suitable and sensitive tools for MT determination in carp tissues. Results of our study showed a gradually enhancing of cadmium content in muscle with time and dose of cadmium chloride in water. MT levels in liver reached both high levels (above 130 ng/g) in fish exposed to 2.5, 5 and 7.5 mg/L and low level (to 50 ng/g) in fish exposed to 10 and 12.5 mg/L of cadmium chloride. This finding confirms that the synthesis of metallothioneins and binding capacity of these proteins is restricted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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718 KiB  
Article
Optimization-Based Channel Constrained Data Aggregation Routing Algorithms in Multi-Radio Wireless Sensor Networks
by Hong-Hsu Yen
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4766-4788; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604766 - 17 Jun 2009
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 11675
Abstract
In wireless sensor networks, data aggregation routing could reduce the number of data transmissions so as to achieve energy efficient transmission. However, data aggregation introduces data retransmission that is caused by co-channel interference from neighboring sensor nodes. This kind of co-channel interference could [...] Read more.
In wireless sensor networks, data aggregation routing could reduce the number of data transmissions so as to achieve energy efficient transmission. However, data aggregation introduces data retransmission that is caused by co-channel interference from neighboring sensor nodes. This kind of co-channel interference could result in extra energy consumption and significant latency from retransmission. This will jeopardize the benefits of data aggregation. One possible solution to circumvent data retransmission caused by co-channel interference is to assign different channels to every sensor node that is within each other’s interference range on the data aggregation tree. By associating each radio with a different channel, a sensor node could receive data from all the children nodes on the data aggregation tree simultaneously. This could reduce the latency from the data source nodes back to the sink so as to meet the user’s delay QoS. Since the number of radios on each sensor node and the number of non-overlapping channels are all limited resources in wireless sensor networks, a challenging question here is to minimize the total transmission cost under limited number of non-overlapping channels in multi-radio wireless sensor networks. This channel constrained data aggregation routing problem in multi-radio wireless sensor networks is an NP-hard problem. I first model this problem as a mixed integer and linear programming problem where the objective is to minimize the total transmission subject to the data aggregation routing, channel and radio resources constraints. The solution approach is based on the Lagrangean relaxation technique to relax some constraints into the objective function and then to derive a set of independent subproblems. By optimally solving these subproblems, it can not only calculate the lower bound of the original primal problem but also provide useful information to get the primal feasible solutions. By incorporating these Lagrangean multipliers as the link arc weight, the optimization-based heuristics are proposed to get energy-efficient data aggregation tree with better resource (channel and radio) utilization. From the computational experiments, the proposed optimization-based approach is superior to existing heuristics under all tested cases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Algorithms)
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791 KiB  
Review
Optical Slot-Waveguide Based Biochemical Sensors
by Carlos Angulo Barrios
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4751-4765; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604751 - 16 Jun 2009
Cited by 154 | Viewed by 21730
Abstract
Slot-waveguides allow light to be guided and strongly confined inside a nanometer-scale region of low refractive index. Thus stronger light-analyte interaction can be obtained as compared to that achievable by a conventional waveguide, in which the propagating beam is confined to the high-refractive-index [...] Read more.
Slot-waveguides allow light to be guided and strongly confined inside a nanometer-scale region of low refractive index. Thus stronger light-analyte interaction can be obtained as compared to that achievable by a conventional waveguide, in which the propagating beam is confined to the high-refractive-index core of the waveguide. In addition, slot-waveguides can be fabricated by employing CMOS compatible materials and technology, enabling miniaturization, integration with electronic, photonic and fluidic components in a chip, and mass production. These advantages have made the use of slot-waveguides for highly sensitive biochemical optical integrated sensors an emerging field. In this paper, recent achievements in slot-waveguide based biochemical sensing will be reviewed. These include slot-waveguide ring resonator based refractometric label-free biosensors, label-based optical sensing, and nano-opto-mechanical sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain)
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310 KiB  
Review
A Review of Wireless Sensor Technologies and Applications in Agriculture and Food Industry: State of the Art and Current Trends
by Luis Ruiz-Garcia, Loredana Lunadei, Pilar Barreiro and Ignacio Robla
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4728-4750; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604728 - 16 Jun 2009
Cited by 582 | Viewed by 54960
Abstract
The aim of the present paper is to review the technical and scientific state of the art of wireless sensor technologies and standards for wireless communications in the Agri-Food sector. These technologies are very promising in several fields such as environmental monitoring, precision [...] Read more.
The aim of the present paper is to review the technical and scientific state of the art of wireless sensor technologies and standards for wireless communications in the Agri-Food sector. These technologies are very promising in several fields such as environmental monitoring, precision agriculture, cold chain control or traceability. The paper focuses on WSN (Wireless Sensor Networks) and RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), presenting the different systems available, recent developments and examples of applications, including ZigBee based WSN and passive, semi-passive and active RFID. Future trends of wireless communications in agriculture and food industry are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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282 KiB  
Article
Secure Cluster Head Sensor Elections Using Signal Strength Estimation and Ordered Transmissions
by Gicheol Wang and Gihwan Cho
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4709-4727; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604709 - 16 Jun 2009
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 14775
Abstract
In clustered sensor networks, electing CHs (Cluster Heads) in a secure manner is very important because they collect data from sensors and send the aggregated data to the sink. If a compromised node is elected as a CH, it can illegally acquire data [...] Read more.
In clustered sensor networks, electing CHs (Cluster Heads) in a secure manner is very important because they collect data from sensors and send the aggregated data to the sink. If a compromised node is elected as a CH, it can illegally acquire data from all the members and even send forged data to the sink. Nevertheless, most of the existing CH election schemes have not treated the problem of the secure CH election. Recently, random value based protocols have been proposed to resolve the secure CH election problem. However, these schemes cannot prevent an attacker from suppressing its contribution for the change of CH election result and from selectively forwarding its contribution for the disagreement of CH election result. In this paper, we propose a modified random value scheme to prevent these disturbances. Our scheme dynamically adjusts the forwarding order of contributions and discards a received contribution when its signal strength is lower than the specified level to prevent these malicious actions. The simulation results have shown that our scheme effectively prevents attackers from changing and splitting an agreement of CH election result. Also, they have shown that our scheme is relatively energy-efficient than other schemes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Technologies and Applications)
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2640 KiB  
Article
High Resolution Remote Sensing of Densely Urbanised Regions: a Case Study of Hong Kong
by Janet E. Nichol and Man Sing Wong
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4695-4708; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604695 - 15 Jun 2009
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 11456
Abstract
Data on the urban environment such as climate or air quality is usually collected at a few point monitoring stations distributed over a city. However, the synoptic viewpoint of satellites where a whole city is visible on a single image permits the collection [...] Read more.
Data on the urban environment such as climate or air quality is usually collected at a few point monitoring stations distributed over a city. However, the synoptic viewpoint of satellites where a whole city is visible on a single image permits the collection of spatially comprehensive data at city-wide scale. In spite of rapid developments in remote sensing systems, deficiencies in image resolution and algorithm development still exist for applications such as air quality monitoring and urban heat island analysis. This paper describes state-of-the-art techniques for enhancing and maximising the spatial detail available from satellite images, and demonstrates their applications to the densely urbanised environment of Hong Kong. An Emissivity Modulation technique for spatial enhancement of thermal satellite images permits modelling of urban microclimate in combination with other urban structural parameters at local scale. For air quality monitoring, a Minimum Reflectance Technique (MRT) has been developed for MODIS 500 m images. The techniques described can promote the routine utilization of remotely sensed images for environmental monitoring in cities of the 21st century. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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756 KiB  
Review
Advances in Hydrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and Hydrocarbon Gas Sensor Technology Using GaN and ZnO-Based Devices
by Travis Anderson, Fan Ren, Stephen Pearton, Byoung Sam Kang, Hung-Ta Wang, Chih-Yang Chang and Jenshan Lin
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4669-4694; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604669 - 15 Jun 2009
Cited by 84 | Viewed by 19791
Abstract
In this paper, we review our recent results in developing gas sensors for hydrogen using various device structures, including ZnO nanowires and GaN High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs). ZnO nanowires are particularly interesting because they have a large surface area to volume ratio, [...] Read more.
In this paper, we review our recent results in developing gas sensors for hydrogen using various device structures, including ZnO nanowires and GaN High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs). ZnO nanowires are particularly interesting because they have a large surface area to volume ratio, which will improve sensitivity, and because they operate at low current levels, will have low power requirements in a sensor module. GaN-based devices offer the advantage of the HEMT structure, high temperature operation, and simple integration with existing fabrication technology and sensing systems. Improvements in sensitivity, recoverability, and reliability are presented. Also reported are demonstrations of detection of other gases, including CO2 and C2H4 using functionalized GaN HEMTs. This is critical for the development of lab-on-a-chip type systems and can provide a significant advance towards a market-ready sensor application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors 2009)
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3801 KiB  
Article
A High Resolution Color Image Restoration Algorithm for Thin TOMBO Imaging Systems
by Amar A. El-Sallam and Farid Boussaid
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4649-4668; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604649 - 15 Jun 2009
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 13452
Abstract
In this paper, we present a blind image restoration algorithm to reconstruct a high resolution (HR) color image from multiple, low resolution (LR), degraded and noisy images captured by thin ( [...] Read more.
In this paper, we present a blind image restoration algorithm to reconstruct a high resolution (HR) color image from multiple, low resolution (LR), degraded and noisy images captured by thin (< 1mm) TOMBO imaging systems. The proposed algorithm is an extension of our grayscale algorithm reported in [1] to the case of color images. In this color extension, each Point Spread Function (PSF) of each captured image is assumed to be different from one color component to another and from one imaging unit to the other. For the task of image restoration, we use all spectral information in each captured image to restore each output pixel in the reconstructed HR image, i.e., we use the most efficient global category of point operations. First, the composite RGB color components of each captured image are extracted. A blind estimation technique is then applied to estimate the spectra of each color component and its associated blurring PSF. The estimation process is formed in a way that minimizes significantly the interchannel cross-correlations and additive noise. The estimated PSFs together with advanced interpolation techniques are then combined to compensate for blur and reconstruct a HR color image of the original scene. Finally, a histogram normalization process adjusts the balance between image color components, brightness and contrast. Simulated and experimental results reveal that the proposed algorithm is capable of restoring HR color images from degraded, LR and noisy observations even at low Signal-to-Noise Energy ratios (SNERs). The proposed algorithm uses FFT and only two fundamental image restoration constraints, making it suitable for silicon integration with the TOMBO imager. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image Sensors 2009)
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2871 KiB  
Article
Immobilization of HRP in Mesoporous Silica and Its Application for the Construction of Polyaniline Modified Hydrogen Peroxide Biosensor
by Chien-Chung Chen, Jing-Shan Do and Yesong Gu
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4635-4648; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604635 - 12 Jun 2009
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 15425
Abstract
Polyaniline (PANI), an attractive conductive polymer, has been successfully applied in fabricating various types of enzyme-based biosensors. In this study, we have employed mesoporous silica SBA-15 to stably entrap horseradish peroxidase (HRP), and then deposited the loaded SBA-15 on the PANI modified platinum [...] Read more.
Polyaniline (PANI), an attractive conductive polymer, has been successfully applied in fabricating various types of enzyme-based biosensors. In this study, we have employed mesoporous silica SBA-15 to stably entrap horseradish peroxidase (HRP), and then deposited the loaded SBA-15 on the PANI modified platinum electrode to construct a GA/SBA-15(HRP)/PANI/Pt biosensor. The mesoporous structures and morphologies of SBA-15 with or without HRP were characterized. Enzymatic protein assays were employed to evaluate HRP immobilization efficiency. Our results demonstrated that the constructed biosensor displayed a fine linear correlation between cathodic response and H2O2 concentration in the range of 0.02 to 18.5 mM, with enhanced sensitivity. In particular, the current approach provided the PANI modified biosensor with improved stability for multiple measurements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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793 KiB  
Article
A New and Inexpensive Pyranometer for the Visible Spectral Range
by Miguel A. Martínez, José M. Andújar and Juan M. Enrique
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4615-4634; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604615 - 12 Jun 2009
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 20246
Abstract
This paper presents the design, construction and testing of a new photodiode-based pyranometer for the visible spectral range (approx. 400 to 750 nm), whose principal characteristics are: accuracy, ease of connection, immunity to noise, remote programming and operation, interior temperature regulation, cosine error [...] Read more.
This paper presents the design, construction and testing of a new photodiode-based pyranometer for the visible spectral range (approx. 400 to 750 nm), whose principal characteristics are: accuracy, ease of connection, immunity to noise, remote programming and operation, interior temperature regulation, cosine error minimisation and all this at a very low cost, tens of times lower than that of commercial thermopile-based devices. This new photodiode-based pyranometer overcomes traditional problems in this type of device and offers similar characteristics to those of thermopile-based pyranometers and, therefore, can be used in any installation where reliable measurement of solar irradiance is necessary, especially in those where cost is a deciding factor in the choice of a meter. This new pyranometer has been registered in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office under the number P200703162. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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Graphical abstract

683 KiB  
Article
Exact Weighted-FBP Algorithm for Three-Orthogonal-Circular Scanning Reconstruction
by Hongli Hu and Jianzhou Zhang
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4606-4614; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604606 - 12 Jun 2009
Viewed by 11294
Abstract
Recently, 3D image fusion reconstruction using a FDK algorithm along threeorthogonal circular isocentric orbits has been proposed. On the other hand, we know that 3D image reconstruction based on three-orthogonal circular isocentric orbits is sufficient in the sense of Tuy data sufficiency condition. [...] Read more.
Recently, 3D image fusion reconstruction using a FDK algorithm along threeorthogonal circular isocentric orbits has been proposed. On the other hand, we know that 3D image reconstruction based on three-orthogonal circular isocentric orbits is sufficient in the sense of Tuy data sufficiency condition. Therefore the datum obtained from three-orthogonal circular isocentric orbits can derive an exact reconstruction algorithm. In this paper, an exact weighted-FBP algorithm with three-orthogonal circular isocentric orbits is derived by means of Katsevich’s equations of filtering lines based on a circle trajectory and a modified weighted form of Tuy’s reconstruction scheme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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1334 KiB  
Article
Development of a Prototype Miniature Silicon Microgyroscope
by Dunzhu Xia, Shuling Chen and Shourong Wang
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4586-4605; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604586 - 11 Jun 2009
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 12839
Abstract
A miniature vacuum-packaged silicon microgyroscope (SMG) with symmetrical and decoupled structure was designed to prevent unintended coupling between drive and sense modes. To ensure high resonant stability and strong disturbance resisting capacity, a self-oscillating closed-loop circuit including an automatic gain control (AGC) loop [...] Read more.
A miniature vacuum-packaged silicon microgyroscope (SMG) with symmetrical and decoupled structure was designed to prevent unintended coupling between drive and sense modes. To ensure high resonant stability and strong disturbance resisting capacity, a self-oscillating closed-loop circuit including an automatic gain control (AGC) loop based on electrostatic force feedback is adopted in drive mode, while, dual-channel decomposition and reconstruction closed loops are applied in sense mode. Moreover, the temperature effect on its zero bias was characterized experimentally and a practical compensation method is given. The testing results demonstrate that the useful signal and quadrature signal will not interact with each other because their phases are decoupled. Under a scale factor condition of 9.6 mV/o/s, in full measurement range of ± 300 deg/s, the zero bias stability reaches 15o/h with worse-case nonlinearity of 400 ppm, and the temperature variation trend of the SMG bias is thus largely eliminated, so that the maximum bias value is reduced to one tenth of the original after compensation from -40 oC to 80 oC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 1st International Conference of the Chinese Society of Micro/Nano Technology)
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1524 KiB  
Article
3D Vision by Using Calibration Pattern with Inertial Sensor and RBF Neural Networks
by Erkan Beşdok
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4572-4585; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604572 - 11 Jun 2009
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 12466
Abstract
Camera calibration is a crucial prerequisite for the retrieval of metric information from images. The problem of camera calibration is the computation of camera intrinsic parameters (i.e., coefficients of geometric distortions, principle distance and principle point) and extrinsic parameters (i.e., 3D spatial orientations: [...] Read more.
Camera calibration is a crucial prerequisite for the retrieval of metric information from images. The problem of camera calibration is the computation of camera intrinsic parameters (i.e., coefficients of geometric distortions, principle distance and principle point) and extrinsic parameters (i.e., 3D spatial orientations: ω, φ, κ, and 3D spatial translations: tx, ty, tz). The intrinsic camera calibration (i.e., interior orientation) models the imaging system of camera optics, while the extrinsic camera calibration (i.e., exterior orientation) indicates the translation and the orientation of the camera with respect to the global coordinate system. Traditional camera calibration techniques require a predefined mathematical-camera model and they use prior knowledge of many parameters. Definition of a realistic camera model is quite difficult and computation of camera calibration parameters are error-prone. In this paper, a novel implicit camera calibration method based on Radial Basis Functions Neural Networks is proposed. The proposed method requires neither an exactly defined camera model nor any prior knowledge about the imaging-setup or classical camera calibration parameters. The proposed method uses a calibration grid-pattern rotated around a static-fixed axis. The rotations of the calibration grid-pattern have been acquired by using an Xsens MTi-9 inertial sensor and in order to evaluate the success of the proposed method, 3D reconstruction performance of the proposed method has been compared with the performance of a traditional camera calibration method, Modified Direct Linear Transformation (MDLT). Extensive simulation results show that the proposed method achieves a better performance than MDLT aspect of 3D reconstruction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neural Networks and Sensors)
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985 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Long-period Grating Refractive Index Sensors and Their Applications
by Hiroshi Tsuda and Kei Urabe
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4559-4571; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604559 - 10 Jun 2009
Cited by 63 | Viewed by 11392
Abstract
The influence of grating length and bend radius of long-period gratings (LPGs) on refractive index sensing was examined. Sensitivity to refractive indexes smaller than that of silica could be enhanced by bending LPGs. Bent LPGs lost sensitivity to refractive indexes higher than that [...] Read more.
The influence of grating length and bend radius of long-period gratings (LPGs) on refractive index sensing was examined. Sensitivity to refractive indexes smaller than that of silica could be enhanced by bending LPGs. Bent LPGs lost sensitivity to refractive indexes higher than that of silica, whereas a 20-mm-long LPG arranged in a straight line had considerable sensitivity. These experimental results demonstrated that the sensitivity characteristics of LPGs to refractive index could be controlled by grating length and bend radius. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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1326 KiB  
Article
Optimal Detection Range of RFID Tag for RFID-based Positioning System Using the k-NN Algorithm
by Soohee Han, Junghwan Kim, Choung-Hwan Park, Hee-Cheon Yoon and Joon Heo
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4543-4558; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604543 - 10 Jun 2009
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 12704
Abstract
Positioning technology to track a moving object is an important and essential component of ubiquitous computing environments and applications. An RFID-based positioning system using the k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) algorithm can determine the position of a moving reader from observed reference [...] Read more.
Positioning technology to track a moving object is an important and essential component of ubiquitous computing environments and applications. An RFID-based positioning system using the k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) algorithm can determine the position of a moving reader from observed reference data. In this study, the optimal detection range of an RFID-based positioning system was determined on the principle that tag spacing can be derived from the detection range. It was assumed that reference tags without signal strength information are regularly distributed in 1-, 2- and 3-dimensional spaces. The optimal detection range was determined, through analytical and numerical approaches, to be 125% of the tag-spacing distance in 1-dimensional space. Through numerical approaches, the range was 134% in 2-dimensional space, 143% in 3-dimensional space. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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3996 KiB  
Article
Building Facade Reconstruction by Fusing Terrestrial Laser Points and Images
by Shi Pu and George Vosselman
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4525-4542; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604525 - 09 Jun 2009
Cited by 66 | Viewed by 14198
Abstract
Laser data and optical data have a complementary nature for three dimensional feature extraction. Efficient integration of the two data sources will lead to a more reliable and automated extraction of three dimensional features. This paper presents a semiautomatic building facade reconstruction approach, [...] Read more.
Laser data and optical data have a complementary nature for three dimensional feature extraction. Efficient integration of the two data sources will lead to a more reliable and automated extraction of three dimensional features. This paper presents a semiautomatic building facade reconstruction approach, which efficiently combines information from terrestrial laser point clouds and close range images. A building facade’s general structure is discovered and established using the planar features from laser data. Then strong lines in images are extracted using Canny extractor and Hough transformation, and compared with current model edges for necessary improvement. Finally, textures with optimal visibility are selected and applied according to accurate image orientations. Solutions to several challenge problems throughout the collaborated reconstruction, such as referencing between laser points and multiple images and automated texturing, are described. The limitations and remaining works of this approach are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue LiDAR for 3D City Modeling)
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753 KiB  
Article
Multi-Aperture CMOS Sun Sensor for Microsatellite Attitude Determination
by Giancarlo Rufino and Michele Grassi
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4503-4524; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604503 - 09 Jun 2009
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 13583
Abstract
This paper describes the high precision digital sun sensor under development at the University of Naples. The sensor determines the sun line orientation in the sensor frame from the measurement of the sun position on the focal plane. It exploits CMOS technology and [...] Read more.
This paper describes the high precision digital sun sensor under development at the University of Naples. The sensor determines the sun line orientation in the sensor frame from the measurement of the sun position on the focal plane. It exploits CMOS technology and an original optical head design with multiple apertures. This allows simultaneous multiple acquisitions of the sun as spots on the focal plane. The sensor can be operated either with a fixed or a variable number of sun spots, depending on the required field of view and sun-line measurement precision. Multiple acquisitions are averaged by using techniques which minimize the computational load to extract the sun line orientation with high precision. Accuracy and computational efficiency are also improved thanks to an original design of the calibration function relying on neural networks. Extensive test campaigns are carried out using a laboratory test facility reproducing sun spectrum, apparent size and distance, and variable illumination directions. Test results validate the sensor concept, confirming the precision improvement achievable with multiple apertures, and sensor operation with a variable number of sun spots. Specifically, the sensor provides accuracy and precision in the order of 1 arcmin and 1 arcsec, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Italy)
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387 KiB  
Review
An Overview of Recent Strategies in Pathogen Sensing
by Jinseok Heo and Susan Z Hua
Sensors 2009, 9(6), 4483-4502; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604483 - 08 Jun 2009
Cited by 105 | Viewed by 16680
Abstract
Pathogenic bacteria are one of the major concerns in food industries and water treatment facilities because of their rapid growth and deleterious effects on human health. The development of fast and accurate detection and identification systems for bacterial strains has long been an [...] Read more.
Pathogenic bacteria are one of the major concerns in food industries and water treatment facilities because of their rapid growth and deleterious effects on human health. The development of fast and accurate detection and identification systems for bacterial strains has long been an important issue to researchers. Although confirmative for the identification of bacteria, conventional methods require time-consuming process involving either the test of characteristic metabolites or cellular reproductive cycles. In this paper, we review recent sensing strategies based on micro- and nano-fabrication technology. These technologies allow for a great improvement of detection limit, therefore, reduce the time required for sample preparation. The paper will be focused on newly developed nano- and micro-scaled biosensors, novel sensing modalities utilizing microfluidic lab-on-a-chip, and array technology for the detection of pathogenic bacteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogen Sensors)
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