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Sensors, Volume 9, Issue 1 (January 2009) – 40 articles , Pages 1-695

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718 KiB  
Review
Applications of Nanomaterials in Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence Biosensors
by Honglan Qi, Yage Peng, Qiang Gao and Chengxiao Zhang
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 674-695; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100674 - 23 Jan 2009
Cited by 102 | Viewed by 15730
Abstract
Electrogenerated chemiluminescence (also called electrochemiluminescence and abbreviated ECL) involves the generation of species at electrode surfaces that then undergo electron-transfer reactions to form excited states that emit light. ECL biosensor, combining advantages offered by the selectivity of the biological recognition elements and the [...] Read more.
Electrogenerated chemiluminescence (also called electrochemiluminescence and abbreviated ECL) involves the generation of species at electrode surfaces that then undergo electron-transfer reactions to form excited states that emit light. ECL biosensor, combining advantages offered by the selectivity of the biological recognition elements and the sensitivity of ECL technique, is a powerful device for ultrasensitive biomolecule detection and quantification. Nanomaterials are of considerable interest in the biosensor field owing to their unique physical and chemical properties, which have led to novel biosensors that have exhibited high sensitivity and stability. Nanomaterials including nanoparticles and nanotubes, prepared from metals, semiconductor, carbon or polymeric species, have been widely investigated for their ability to enhance the efficiencies of ECL biosensors, such as taking as modification electrode materials, or as carrier of ECL labels and ECL-emitting species. Particularly useful application of nanomaterials in ECL biosensors with emphasis on the years 2004-2008 is reviewed. Remarks on application of nanomaterials in ECL biosensors are also surveyed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnological Advances in Biosensors)
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363 KiB  
Article
Use of Reflectance Ratios as a Proxy for Coastal Water Constituent Monitoring in the Pearl River Estuary
by Li-Gang Fang, Shui-Sen Chen, Dong Li and Hong-Li Li
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 656-673; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100656 - 23 Jan 2009
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 13324
Abstract
Spectra, salinity, total suspended solids (TSS, in mg/L) and colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM, ag(400) at 400 nm) sampled in stations in 44 different locations on December 18, 19 and 21, in 2006 were measured and analyzed. The studied field covered a large [...] Read more.
Spectra, salinity, total suspended solids (TSS, in mg/L) and colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM, ag(400) at 400 nm) sampled in stations in 44 different locations on December 18, 19 and 21, in 2006 were measured and analyzed. The studied field covered a large variety of optically different waters, the absorption coefficient of CDOM ([ag(400)] in m-1) varied between 0.488 and 1.41 m-1, and the TSS concentrations (mg/L) varied between 7.0 and 241.1 mg/L. In order to detect salinity of the Pearl River Estuary, we analyzed the spectral properties of TSS and CDOM, and the relationships between field water reflectance spectra and water constituents’ concentrations based on the synchronous in-situ and satellite hyper-spectral image analysis. A good correlation was discovered (the positive correlation by linear fit), between in-situ reflectance ratio R680/R527 and TSS concentrations (R2 = 0.65) for the salinity range of 1.74-22.12. However, the result also showed that the absorption coefficient of CDOM was not tightly correlated with reflectance. In addition, we also observed two significant relationships (R2 > 0.77), one between TSS concentrations and surface salinity and the other between the absorption coefficient of CDOM and surface salinity. Finally, we develop a novel method to understand surface salinity distribution of estuarine waters from the calibrated EO-1 Hyperion reflectance data in the Pearl River Estuary, i.e. channels with high salinity and shoals with low salinity. The EO-1 Hyperion derived surface salinity and TSSconcentrations were validated using in-situ data that were collected on December 21, 2006, synchronous with EO-1 Hyperion satellite imagery acquisition. The results showed that the semi-empirical relationships are capable of predicting salinity from EO-1 Hyperion imagery in the Pearl River Estuary (RMSE < 2‰). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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295 KiB  
Article
Reduction of Non-Specific Protein Adsorption Using Poly(ethylene) Glycol (PEG) Modified Polyacrylate Hydrogels In Immunoassays for Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B Detection
by Paul T. Charles, Veronte R. Stubbs, Carissa M. Soto, Brett D. Martin, Brandy J. White and Chris R. Taitt
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 645-655; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100645 - 23 Jan 2009
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 14504
Abstract
Three PEG molecules (PEG-methacrylate, -diacrylate and -dimethacrylate) were incorporated into galactose-based polyacrylate hydrogels and their relative abilities to reduce non-specific protein adsorption in immunoassays were determined. Highly crosslinked hydrogels containing amine-terminated functionalities were formed and used to covalently attach antibodies specific for staphylococcal [...] Read more.
Three PEG molecules (PEG-methacrylate, -diacrylate and -dimethacrylate) were incorporated into galactose-based polyacrylate hydrogels and their relative abilities to reduce non-specific protein adsorption in immunoassays were determined. Highly crosslinked hydrogels containing amine-terminated functionalities were formed and used to covalently attach antibodies specific for staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB). Patterned arrays of immobilized antibodies in the PEG-modified hydrogels were created with a PDMS template containing micro-channels for use in sandwich immunoassays to detect SEB. Different concentrations of the toxin were applied to the hydrogel arrays, followed with a Cy3-labeled tracer antibody specific for the two toxins. Fluorescence laser scanning confocal microscopy of the tracer molecules provided both qualitative and quantitative measurements on the detection sensitivity and the reduction in non-specific binding as a result of PEG incorporation. Results showed the PEG-modified hydrogel significantly reduced non-specific protein binding with a detection limit for SEB of 1 ng/mL. Fluorescence signals showed a 10-fold decrease in the non-specific binding and a 6-fold increase in specific binding of SEB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxin Sensors)
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675 KiB  
Article
A Two-Dimensional Micro Scanner Integrated with a Piezoelectric Actuator and Piezoresistors
by Chi Zhang, Gaofei Zhang and Zheng You
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 631-644; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100631 - 23 Jan 2009
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 10630
Abstract
A compact two-dimensional micro scanner with small volume, large deflection angles and high frequency is presented and the two-dimensional laser scanning is achieved by specular reflection. To achieve large deflection angles, the micro scanner excited by a piezoelectric actuator operates in the resonance [...] Read more.
A compact two-dimensional micro scanner with small volume, large deflection angles and high frequency is presented and the two-dimensional laser scanning is achieved by specular reflection. To achieve large deflection angles, the micro scanner excited by a piezoelectric actuator operates in the resonance mode. The scanning frequencies and the maximum scanning angles of the two degrees of freedom are analyzed by modeling and simulation of the structure. For the deflection angle measurement, piezoresistors are integrated in the micro scanner. The appropriate directions and crystal orientations of the piezoresistors are designed to obtain the large piezoresistive coefficients for the high sensitivities. Wheatstone bridges are used to measure the deflection angles of each direction independently and precisely. The scanner is fabricated and packaged with the piezoelectric actuator and the piezoresistors detection circuits in a size of 28 mm×20 mm×18 mm. The experiment shows that the two scanning frequencies are 216.8 Hz and 464.8 Hz, respectively. By an actuation displacement of 10 μm, the scanning range of the two-dimensional micro scanner is above 26º × 23º. The deflection angle measurement sensitivities for two directions are 59 mV/deg and 30 mV/deg, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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637 KiB  
Article
Observation of a Large Landslide on La Reunion Island Using Differential Sar Interferometry (JERS and Radarsat) and Correlation of Optical (Spot5 and Aerial) Images
by Christophe Delacourt, Daniel Raucoules, Stéphane Le Mouélic, Claudie Carnec, Denis Feurer, Pascal Allemand and Marc Cruchet
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 616-630; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100616 - 21 Jan 2009
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 14518
Abstract
Slope instabilities are one of the most important geo-hazards in terms of socio-economic costs. The island of La Réunion (Indian Ocean) is affected by constant slope movements and huge landslides due to a combination of rough topography, wet tropical climate and its specific [...] Read more.
Slope instabilities are one of the most important geo-hazards in terms of socio-economic costs. The island of La Réunion (Indian Ocean) is affected by constant slope movements and huge landslides due to a combination of rough topography, wet tropical climate and its specific geological context. We show that remote sensing techniques (Differential SAR Interferometry and correlation of optical images) provide complementary means to characterize landslides on a regional scale. The vegetation cover generally hampers the analysis of C–band interferograms. We used JERS-1 images to show that the L-band can be used to overcome the loss of coherence observed in Radarsat C-band interferograms. Image correlation was applied to optical airborne and SPOT 5 sensors images. The two techniques were applied to a landslide near the town of Hellbourg in order to assess their performance for detecting and quantifying the ground motion associated to this landslide. They allowed the mapping of the unstable areas. Ground displacement of about 0.5 m yr-1 was measured. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR))
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530 KiB  
Article
An Approach for Rapid Assessment of Seismic Hazards in Turkey by Continuous GPS Data
by Haluk Ozener, Asli Dogru and Ahmet Unlutepe
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 602-615; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100602 - 20 Jan 2009
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 12281
Abstract
The Earth is being monitored every day by all kinds of sensors. This leads an overflow of data in all branches of science nowadays, especially in Earth Sciences. Data storage and data processing are the problems to be solved by current technologies, as [...] Read more.
The Earth is being monitored every day by all kinds of sensors. This leads an overflow of data in all branches of science nowadays, especially in Earth Sciences. Data storage and data processing are the problems to be solved by current technologies, as well as by those accessing and analyzing these large data sources. Once solutions have been created for collecting, storing and accessing data, then the challenge becomes how to effectively share data, applications and processing resources across many locations. The Global Positioning System (GPS) sensors are being used as geodetic instruments to precisely detect crustal motion in the Earth’s surface. Rapid access to data provided by GPS sensors is becoming increasingly important for deformation monitoring and rapid hazard assessments. Today, reliable and fast collection and distribution of data is a challenge and advances in Internet technologies have made it easier to provide the needed data. This study describes a system which will be able to generate strain maps using data from continuous GPS stations for seismic hazard analysis. Strain rates are a key factor in seismic hazard analyses. Turkey is a country prone to earthquakes with a long history of seismic hazards and disasters. This situation has resulted in the studies by Earth scientists that focus on Turkey in order to improve their understanding of the Earth’s crust structure and seismic hazards. Nevertheless, the construction of models, data access and analysis are often not fast as expected, but the combination of Internet technologies with continuous GPS sensors can be a solution to overcome this problem. This system would have the potential to answer many important questions to assess seismic hazards such as how much stretching, squashing and shearing is taking place in different parts of Turkey, and how do velocities change from place to place? Seismic hazard estimation is the most effective way to reduce earthquake losses. It is clear that reliability of data and on-line services will support the preparation of strategies for disaster management and planning to cope with hazards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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2689 KiB  
Review
State-of-The-Art and Applications of 3D Imaging Sensors in Industry, Cultural Heritage, Medicine, and Criminal Investigation
by Giovanna Sansoni, Marco Trebeschi and Franco Docchio
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 568-601; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100568 - 20 Jan 2009
Cited by 480 | Viewed by 33603
Abstract
3D imaging sensors for the acquisition of three dimensional (3D) shapes have created, in recent years, a considerable degree of interest for a number of applications. The miniaturization and integration of the optical and electronic components used to build them have played a [...] Read more.
3D imaging sensors for the acquisition of three dimensional (3D) shapes have created, in recent years, a considerable degree of interest for a number of applications. The miniaturization and integration of the optical and electronic components used to build them have played a crucial role in the achievement of compactness, robustness and flexibility of the sensors. Today, several 3D sensors are available on the market, even in combination with other sensors in a “sensor fusion” approach. An importance equal to that of physical miniaturization has the portability of the measurements, via suitable interfaces, into software environments designed for their elaboration, e.g., CAD-CAM systems, virtual renders, and rapid prototyping tools. In this paper, following an overview of the state-of-art of 3D imaging sensors, a number of significant examples of their use are presented, with particular reference to industry, heritage, medicine, and criminal investigation applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Italy)
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508 KiB  
Article
Modeling Impact-induced Failure of Polysilicon MEMS: A Multi-scale Approach
by Stefano Mariani, Aldo Ghisi, Alberto Corigliano and Sarah Zerbini
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 556-567; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100556 - 19 Jan 2009
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 10540
Abstract
Failure of packaged polysilicon micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) subjected to impacts involves phenomena occurring at several length-scales. In this paper we present a multi-scale finite element approach to properly allow for: (i) the propagation of stress waves inside the package; (ii) the dynamics of [...] Read more.
Failure of packaged polysilicon micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) subjected to impacts involves phenomena occurring at several length-scales. In this paper we present a multi-scale finite element approach to properly allow for: (i) the propagation of stress waves inside the package; (ii) the dynamics of the whole MEMS; (iii) the spreading of micro-cracking in the failing part(s) of the sensor. Through Monte Carlo simulations, some effects of polysilicon micro-structure on the failure mode are elucidated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Italy)
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222 KiB  
Article
Ricin Detection Using Phage Displayed Single Domain Antibodies
by Ellen R. Goldman, Jinny L. Liu, Rachael D. Bernstein, Marla D. Swain, Stanley Q. Mitchell and George P. Anderson
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 542-555; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100542 - 19 Jan 2009
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 12015
Abstract
Phage-displayed single domain antibodies (sdAb) were compared to monomeric solubly expressed sdAb and llama polyclonal antibodies for the detection of ricin. SdAb are comprised of the variable domain derived from camelid heavy chain only antibodies (HcAb). Although HcAb lack variable light chains, they [...] Read more.
Phage-displayed single domain antibodies (sdAb) were compared to monomeric solubly expressed sdAb and llama polyclonal antibodies for the detection of ricin. SdAb are comprised of the variable domain derived from camelid heavy chain only antibodies (HcAb). Although HcAb lack variable light chains, they as well as their derivative sdAb are able to bind antigens with high affinity. The small size of sdAb (~16 kDa), while advantageous in many respects, limits the number of labels that can be incorporated. The ability to incorporate multiple labels is a beneficial attribute for reporter elements. Opportunely, sdAb are often selected using phage display methodology. Using sdAb displayed on bacteriophage M13 as the reporter element gives the potential for incorporating a very high number of labels. We have demonstrated the use of both sdAb and phage- displayed sdAb for the detection of ricin using both enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and Luminex fluid array assays. The phage-displayed sdAb led to five to ten fold better detection of ricin in both the ELISA and Luminex assays, resulting in limits of detection of 1 ng/mL and 64 pg/mL respectively. The phage-displayed sdAb were also dramatically more effective for the visualization of binding to target in nitrocellulose dot blot assays, a method frequently used for epitope mapping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxin Sensors)
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486 KiB  
Article
Simultaneous Measurements of Chlorophyll Concentration by Lidar, Fluorometry, above-Water Radiometry, and Ocean Color MODIS Images in the Southwestern Atlantic
by Milton Kampel, João A. Lorenzzetti, Cristina M. Bentz, Raul A. Nunes, Rodolfo Paranhos, Frederico M. Rudorff and Alexandre T. Politano
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 528-541; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100528 - 16 Jan 2009
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 13186
Abstract
Comparisons between in situ measurements of surface chlorophyll-a concentration (CHL) and ocean color remote sensing estimates were conducted during an oceanographic cruise on the Brazilian Southeastern continental shelf and slope, Southwestern South Atlantic. In situ values were based on fluorometry, above-water radiometry [...] Read more.
Comparisons between in situ measurements of surface chlorophyll-a concentration (CHL) and ocean color remote sensing estimates were conducted during an oceanographic cruise on the Brazilian Southeastern continental shelf and slope, Southwestern South Atlantic. In situ values were based on fluorometry, above-water radiometry and lidar fluorosensor. Three empirical algorithms were used to estimate CHL from radiometric measurements: Ocean Chlorophyll 3 bands (OC3MRAD), Ocean Chlorophyll 4 bands (OC4v4RAD), and Ocean Chlorophyll 2 bands (OC2v4RAD). The satellite estimates of CHL were derived from data collected by the MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) with a nominal 1.1 km resolution at nadir. Three algorithms were used to estimate chlorophyll concentrations from MODIS data: one empirical - OC3MSAT, and two semi-analytical - Garver, Siegel, Maritorena version 01 (GSM01SAT), and CarderSAT. In the present work, MODIS, lidar and in situ above-water radiometry and fluorometry are briefly described and the estimated values of chlorophyll retrieved by these techniques are compared. The chlorophyll concentration in the study area was in the range 0.01 to 0.2 mg·m-3. In general, the empirical algorithms applied to the in situ radiometric and satellite data showed a tendency to overestimate CHL with a mean difference between estimated and measured values of as much as 0.17 mg/m3 (OC2v4RAD). The semi-analytical GSM01 algorithm applied to MODIS data performed better (rmse 0.28, rmse-L 0.08, mean diff. -0.01 mg/m3) than the Carder and the empirical OC3M algorithms (rmse 1.14 and 0.36, rmse-L 0.34 and 0.11, mean diff. 0.17 and 0.02 mg/m3, respectively). We find that rmsd values between MODIS relative to the in situ radiometric measurements are < 26%, i.e., there is a trend towards overestimation of RRS by MODIS for the stations considered in this work. Other authors have already reported over and under estimation of MODIS remotely sensed reflectance due to several errors in the bio-optical algorithm performance, in the satellite sensor calibration, and in the atmospheric-correction algorithm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ocean Remote Sensing)
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292 KiB  
Article
Sensitivity Improvement of a Humidity Sensor Based on Silica Nanospheres on a Long-Period Fiber Grating
by Diana Viegas, Javier Goicoechea, José Luís Santos, Francisco Moita Araújo, Luís Alberto Ferreira, Francisco J. Arregui and Ignacio R. Matias
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 519-527; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100519 - 16 Jan 2009
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 12028
Abstract
This work addresses a new configuration that improves the sensitivity of a humidity sensor based on a long-period fiber grating coated with a SiO2-nanospheres film. An intermediate higher refractive index overlay, deposited through Electrostatic Self-Assembly, is placed between the fiber cladding [...] Read more.
This work addresses a new configuration that improves the sensitivity of a humidity sensor based on a long-period fiber grating coated with a SiO2-nanospheres film. An intermediate higher refractive index overlay, deposited through Electrostatic Self-Assembly, is placed between the fiber cladding and the humidity sensitive film in order to increase the total effective refractive index of the coating. With this intermediate design, a three-fold improvement in the sensitivity was obtained. Wavelength shifts up to 15 nm against 5 nm were achieved in a humidity range from 20% to 80%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnological Advances in Biosensors)
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1648 KiB  
Article
A Study of Ground Deformation in the Guangzhou Urban Area with Persistent Scatterer Interferometry
by Qing Zhao, Hui Lin, Liming Jiang, Fulong Chen and Shilai Cheng
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 503-518; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100503 - 15 Jan 2009
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 13347
Abstract
TheInterferometric Point Target Analysis (IPTA) technique and Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) images acquired over Hong Kong from 2007–2008 were used to detect ground deformation in the urban area of Guangzhou city in South China. A ground deformation rate map with scattered distribution [...] Read more.
TheInterferometric Point Target Analysis (IPTA) technique and Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) images acquired over Hong Kong from 2007–2008 were used to detect ground deformation in the urban area of Guangzhou city in South China. A ground deformation rate map with scattered distribution of point targets shows the maximum subsidence (rise) rate as high as -26 to -20 mma-1 (16–21 mma-1), implying that the study area is an active zone for ground deformation. Based on the point target map, a contour ground deformation rate map is generated. The map shows three major subsidence zones located in the middle-west, the east, and the southwest of the study area, respectively. All the six ground collapse accidents that occurred in 2007–2008 fall within the subsidence zones, qualitatively validating the IPTA results. Ground subsidence and geological conditions on Datansha Island are examined. The results indicate that the local geological conditions, such as limestone Karst geomorphology as well as silt layers characterized by high water content, high void ratio, high compressibility, low bearing capacity and low shear strength, and underground engineering projects are responsible for ground subsidence and ground collapse accidents occurred there. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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390 KiB  
Article
Multi-Line Fit Model for the Detection of Methane at ν2 + 2ν3 Band using Hollow-Core Photonic Bandgap Fibres
by Ana M. Cubillas, Jose M. Lazaro, Olga M. Conde, Marco N. Petrovich and Jose M. Lopez-Higuera
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 490-502; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100490 - 14 Jan 2009
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 62279
Abstract
Hollow-core photonic bandgap fibres (HC-PBFs) have emerged as a novel technology in the field of gas sensing. The long interaction pathlengths achievable with these fibres are especially advantageous for the detection of weakly absorbing gases. In this work, we demonstrate the good performance [...] Read more.
Hollow-core photonic bandgap fibres (HC-PBFs) have emerged as a novel technology in the field of gas sensing. The long interaction pathlengths achievable with these fibres are especially advantageous for the detection of weakly absorbing gases. In this work, we demonstrate the good performance of a HC-PBF in the detection of the ν2 + 2ν3 band of methane, at 1.3 μm. The Q-branch manifold, at 1331.55 nm, is targeted for concentration monitoring purposes. A computationally optimized multi-line model is used to fit the Q-branch. Using this model, a detection limit of 98 ppmv (parts per million by volume) is estimated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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1484 KiB  
Article
Influence of Surface Roughness Spatial Variability and Temporal Dynamics on the Retrieval of Soil Moisture from SAR Observations
by Jesús Álvarez-Mozos, Niko E.C. Verhoest, Arantzazu Larrañaga, Javier Casalí and María González-Audícana
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 463-489; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100463 - 13 Jan 2009
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 14767
Abstract
Radar-based surface soil moisture retrieval has been subject of intense research during the last decades. However, several difficulties hamper the operational estimation of soil moisture based on currently available spaceborne sensors. The main difficulty experienced so far results from the strong influence of [...] Read more.
Radar-based surface soil moisture retrieval has been subject of intense research during the last decades. However, several difficulties hamper the operational estimation of soil moisture based on currently available spaceborne sensors. The main difficulty experienced so far results from the strong influence of other surface characteristics, mainly roughness, on the backscattering coefficient, which hinders the soil moisture inversion. This is especially true for single configuration observations where the solution to the surface backscattering problem is ill-posed. Over agricultural areas cultivated with winter cereal crops, roughness can be assumed to remain constant along the growing cycle allowing the use of simplified approaches that facilitate the estimation of the moisture content of soils. However, the field scale spatial variability and temporal variations of roughness can introduce errors in the estimation of soil moisture that are difficult to evaluate. The objective of this study is to assess the impact of roughness spatial variability and roughness temporal variations on the retrieval of soil moisture from radar observations. A series of laser profilometer measurements were performed over several fields in an experimental watershed from September 2004 to March 2005. The influence of the observed roughness variability and its temporal variations on the retrieval of soil moisture is studied using simulations performed with the Integral Equation Model, considering different sensor configurations. Results show that both field scale roughness spatial variability and its temporal variations are aspects that need to be taken into account, since they can introduce large errors on the retrieved soil moisture values. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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174 KiB  
Article
An Energy-Aware Routing Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks
by Ming Liu, Jiannong Cao, Guihai Chen and Xiaomin Wang
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 445-462; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100445 - 13 Jan 2009
Cited by 172 | Viewed by 16567
Abstract
The most important issue that must be solved in designing a data gathering algorithm for wireless sensor networks (WSNS) is how to save sensor node energy while meeting the needs of applications/users. In this paper, we propose a novel energy-aware routing protocol (EAP) [...] Read more.
The most important issue that must be solved in designing a data gathering algorithm for wireless sensor networks (WSNS) is how to save sensor node energy while meeting the needs of applications/users. In this paper, we propose a novel energy-aware routing protocol (EAP) for a long-lived sensor network. EAP achieves a good performance in terms of lifetime by minimizing energy consumption for in-network communications and balancing the energy load among all the nodes. EAP introduces a new clustering parameter for cluster head election, which can better handle the heterogeneous energy capacities. Furthermore, it also introduces a simple but efficient approach, namely, intra-cluster coverage to cope with the area coverage problem. We use a simple temperature sensing application to evaluate the performance of EAP and results show that our protocol significantly outperforms LEACH and HEED in terms of network lifetime and the amount of data gathered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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482 KiB  
Review
CMOS Image Sensors for High Speed Applications
by Munir El-Desouki, M. Jamal Deen, Qiyin Fang, Louis Liu, Frances Tse and David Armstrong
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 430-444; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100430 - 13 Jan 2009
Cited by 161 | Viewed by 25128
Abstract
Recent advances in deep submicron CMOS technologies and improved pixel designs have enabled CMOS-based imagers to surpass charge-coupled devices (CCD) imaging technology for mainstream applications. The parallel outputs that CMOS imagers can offer, in addition to complete camera-on-a-chip solutions due to being fabricated [...] Read more.
Recent advances in deep submicron CMOS technologies and improved pixel designs have enabled CMOS-based imagers to surpass charge-coupled devices (CCD) imaging technology for mainstream applications. The parallel outputs that CMOS imagers can offer, in addition to complete camera-on-a-chip solutions due to being fabricated in standard CMOS technologies, result in compelling advantages in speed and system throughput. Since there is a practical limit on the minimum pixel size (4~5 μm) due to limitations in the optics, CMOS technology scaling can allow for an increased number of transistors to be integrated into the pixel to improve both detection and signal processing. Such smart pixels truly show the potential of CMOS technology for imaging applications allowing CMOS imagers to achieve the image quality and global shuttering performance necessary to meet the demands of ultrahigh-speed applications. In this paper, a review of CMOS-based high-speed imager design is presented and the various implementations that target ultrahigh-speed imaging are described. This work also discusses the design, layout and simulation results of an ultrahigh acquisition rate CMOS active-pixel sensor imager that can take 8 frames at a rate of more than a billion frames per second (fps). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image Sensors 2009)
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652 KiB  
Article
A Differential Pressure Instrument with Wireless Telemetry for In-Situ Measurement of Fluid Flow across Sediment-Water Boundaries
by Alan T. Gardner, Hanan N. Karam, Ann E. Mulligan, Charles F. Harvey, Terence R. Hammar and Harold F. Hemond
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 404-429; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100404 - 09 Jan 2009
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 13834
Abstract
An instrument has been built to carry out continuous in-situ measurement of small differences in water pressure, conductivity and temperature, in natural surface water and groundwater systems. A low-cost data telemetry system provides data on shore in real time if desired. The immediate [...] Read more.
An instrument has been built to carry out continuous in-situ measurement of small differences in water pressure, conductivity and temperature, in natural surface water and groundwater systems. A low-cost data telemetry system provides data on shore in real time if desired. The immediate purpose of measurements by this device is to continuously infer fluxes of water across the sediment-water interface in a complex estuarine system; however, direct application to assessment of sediment-water fluxes in rivers, lakes, and other systems is also possible. Key objectives of the design include both low cost, and accuracy of the order of ±0.5 mm H2O in measured head difference between the instrument’s two pressure ports. These objectives have been met, although a revision to the design of one component was found to be necessary. Deployments of up to nine months, and wireless range in excess of 300 m have been demonstrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Pressure Sensors)
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317 KiB  
Article
Human NK Cell Up-regulation of CD69, HLA-DR, Interferon γ Secretion and Cytotoxic Activity by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells is Regulated through Overlapping but Different Pathways
by Adel Benlahrech, Heather Donaghy, George Rozis, Martin Goodier, Linda Klavinskis, Frances Gotch and Steven Patterson
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 386-403; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100386 - 09 Jan 2009
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 15922
Abstract
Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells secrete high levels of IFNa and are thus implicated in the activation of NK cells. Activated NK cells are characterised by the up-regulation of CD69 and MHC class II DR expression, secretion of IFN g and enhanced cytotoxicity. We [...] Read more.
Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells secrete high levels of IFNa and are thus implicated in the activation of NK cells. Activated NK cells are characterised by the up-regulation of CD69 and MHC class II DR expression, secretion of IFN g and enhanced cytotoxicity. We show that pDC mediate these processes by different mechanisms, some of which overlap. Human NK cells were analysed after co-culture with immature or CpG-matured blood pDC or with supernatant from these cells. Maximal CD69 expression by NK cells was mediated by supernatant from mature pDC and did not require pDC contact. Up-regulation was due in part to IFNa but also to factors in IFNa negative supernatant from immature DC. HLA-DR expression was independent of secreted molecules but required contact with immature or mature DC. Enhanced NK cytotoxicity, measured by killing of K562 targets and expression of CD107a, was mediated by multiple factors including type I IFN, supernatant from immature pDC cultures and contact with immature or mature pDC. These factors act cumulatively to enhance cytotoxcity. Thus different parameters of pDC mediated NK cell activation are regulated by distinct pathways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dendritic Sensors: From Dendrimer Molecules to Dendritic Cells)
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130 KiB  
Article
Immobilization of Electroporated Cells for Fabrication of Cellular Biosensors: Physiological Effects of the Shape of Calcium Alginate Matrices and Foetal Calf Serum
by Nikos Katsanakis, Andreas Katsivelis and Spiridon Kintzios
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 378-385; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100378 - 09 Jan 2009
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 10614
Abstract
In order to investigate the physiological effect of transfected cell immobilization in calcium alginate gels, we immobilized electroporated Vero cells in gels shaped either as spherical beads or as thin membrane layers. In addition, we investigated whether serum addition had a positive effect [...] Read more.
In order to investigate the physiological effect of transfected cell immobilization in calcium alginate gels, we immobilized electroporated Vero cells in gels shaped either as spherical beads or as thin membrane layers. In addition, we investigated whether serum addition had a positive effect on cell proliferation and viability in either gel configuration. The gels were stored for four weeks in a medium supplemented or not with 20% (v/v) foetal calf serum. Throughout a culture period of four weeks, cell proliferation and cell viability were assayed by optical microscopy after provision of Trypan Blue. Non-elaborate culture conditions (room temperature, non-CO2 enriched culture atmosphere) were applied throughout the experimental period in order to evaluate cell viability under less than optimal storage conditions. Immobilization of electroporated cells was associated with an initially reduced cell viability, which was gradually increased. Immobilization was associated with maintenance of cell growth for the duration of the experimental period, whereas electroporated cells essentially died after a week in suspension culture. Considerable proliferation of immobilized cells was observed in spherical alginate beads. In both gel configurations, addition of serum was associated with increased cell proliferation. The results of the present study could contribute to an improvement of the storability of biosensors based on electroporated, genetically or membrane-engineered cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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153 KiB  
Correction
Vasić, V. et al. Na+,K+-ATPase as the Target Enzyme for Organic and Inorganic Compounds. Sensors 2008, 8, 8321-8360
by Vesna Vasić, Tatjana Momić, Marijana Petković and Danijela Krstić
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100377 - 08 Jan 2009
Viewed by 6892
114 KiB  
Correction
Jeong, H.; Jeon, S. Determination of Dopamine in the Presence of Ascorbic Acid by Nafion and Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Film Modified on Carbon Fiber Microelectrode. Sensors 2008, 8, 6924-6935
by Haesang Jeong and Seungwon Jeon
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100376 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5333
1281 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Convergence Region of an Automated Registration Method for 3D Laser Scanner Point Clouds
by Kwang-Ho Bae
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 355-375; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100355 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9844
Abstract
Using three dimensional point clouds from both simulated and real datasets from close and terrestrial laser scanners, the rotational and translational convergence regions of Geometric Primitive Iterative Closest Points (GP-ICP) are empirically evaluated. The results demonstrate the GP-ICP has a larger rotational convergence [...] Read more.
Using three dimensional point clouds from both simulated and real datasets from close and terrestrial laser scanners, the rotational and translational convergence regions of Geometric Primitive Iterative Closest Points (GP-ICP) are empirically evaluated. The results demonstrate the GP-ICP has a larger rotational convergence region than the existing methods, e.g., the Iterative Closest Point (ICP). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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199 KiB  
Article
An Effective Mobile Sensor Control Method for Sparse Sensor Networks
by Kriengsak Treeprapin, Akimitsu Kanzaki, Takahiro Hara and Shojiro Nishio
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 327-354; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100327 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7555
Abstract
In this paper, we propose an effective mobile sensor control method, named DATFM (Data Acquisition and Transmission with Fixed and Mobile node) for sparse sensor networks. DATFM uses two types of sensor nodes, fixed node and mobile node. The data acquired by [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose an effective mobile sensor control method, named DATFM (Data Acquisition and Transmission with Fixed and Mobile node) for sparse sensor networks. DATFM uses two types of sensor nodes, fixed node and mobile node. The data acquired by nodes are accumulated on a fixed node before being transferred to the sink node. In addition, DATFM transfers the accumulated data efficiently by constructing a communication route of multiple mobile nodes between fixed nodes. We also conduct simulation experiments to evaluate the performance of DATFM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Japan)
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721 KiB  
Article
Emission Characteristics and Factors of Selected Odorous Compounds at a Wastewater Treatment Plant
by Eui-Chan Jeon, Hyun-Keun Son and Jae-Hwan Sa
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 311-326; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100311 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 11607
Abstract
This study was initiated to explore the emission characteristics of Reduced Sulfur Compounds (RSCs: hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide), ammonia and trimethylamine from a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) located at Sun-Cheon, Chonlanam-Do in South Korea. The study also evaluates flux [...] Read more.
This study was initiated to explore the emission characteristics of Reduced Sulfur Compounds (RSCs: hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide), ammonia and trimethylamine from a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) located at Sun-Cheon, Chonlanam-Do in South Korea. The study also evaluates flux profiles of the six selected odorous compounds and their flux rates (µg/m2/min) and compares their emission characteristics. A Dynamic Flux Chamber DFC was used to measure fluxes of pollutants from the treatment plant. Quality control of odor samples using a non-reactive sulfur dioxide gas determined the time taken for DFC concentration to reach equilibrium. The reduced sulfur compounds were analyzed by interfacing gas chromatography with a Pulsed Flame Photometric Detector (PFPD). Air samples were collected in the morning and afternoon on one day during summer (August) and two days in winter (December and January). Their emission rates were determined and it was observed that during summer relatively higher amounts of the selected odorous compounds were emitted compared to winter. Air samples from primary settling basin, aeration basin, and final settling basin were tested and the total amount of selected odorous compounds emitted per wastewater ton was found to be 1344 µg/m3 from the selected treatment processes. It was also observed that, in this study, the dominant odor intensity contribution was caused by dimethyl disulfide (69.1%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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168 KiB  
Communication
Algorithmic Foundation of Spectral Rarefaction for Measuring Satellite Imagery Heterogeneity at Multiple Spatial Scales
by Duccio Rocchini
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 303-310; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100303 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 10023
Abstract
Measuring heterogeneity in satellite imagery is an important task to deal with. Most measures of spectral diversity have been based on Shannon Information theory. However, this approach does not inherently address different scales, ranging from local (hereafter referred to alpha diversity) to global [...] Read more.
Measuring heterogeneity in satellite imagery is an important task to deal with. Most measures of spectral diversity have been based on Shannon Information theory. However, this approach does not inherently address different scales, ranging from local (hereafter referred to alpha diversity) to global scales (gamma diversity). The aim of this paper is to propose a method for measuring spectral heterogeneity at multiple scales based on rarefaction curves. An algorithmic solution of rarefaction applied to image pixel values (Digital Numbers, DNs) is provided and discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Algorithms)
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410 KiB  
Article
A Localized Coverage Preserving Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks
by Yuheng Liu, Juhua Pu, Shuo Zhang, Yunlu Liu and Zhang Xiong
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 281-302; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100281 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 12065
Abstract
In a randomly deployed and large scale wireless sensor network, coverage-redundant nodes consume much unnecessary energy. As a result, turning off these redundant nodes can prolong the network lifetime, while maintaining the degree of sensing coverage with a limited number of on-duty nodes. [...] Read more.
In a randomly deployed and large scale wireless sensor network, coverage-redundant nodes consume much unnecessary energy. As a result, turning off these redundant nodes can prolong the network lifetime, while maintaining the degree of sensing coverage with a limited number of on-duty nodes. None of the off-duty eligibility rules in the literature, however, are sufficient and necessary conditions for eligible nodes. Hence redundancy or blind points might be incurred. In this paper we propose a complete Eligibility Rule based on Perimeter Coverage (ERPC) for a node to determine its eligibility for sleeping. ERPC has a computational complexity of O(N2log(N)), lower than the eligibility rule in the Coverage Control Protocol (CCP), O(N3), where N is the number of neighboring nodes. We then present a Coverage Preserving Protocol (CPP) to schedule the work state of eligible nodes. The main advantage of CPP over the Ottawa protocol lies in its ability to configure the network to any specific coverage degree, while the Ottawa protocol does not support different coverage configuration. Moreover, as a localized protocol, CPP has better adaptability to dynamic topologies than centralized protocols. Simulation results indicate that CPP can preserve network coverage with fewer active nodes than the Ottawa protocol. In addition, CPP is capable of identifying all the eligible nodes exactly while the CCP protocol might result in blind points due to error decisions. Quantitative analysis and experiments demonstrate that CPP can extend the network lifetime significantly while maintaining a given coverage degree. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Algorithms)
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Article
HyBloc: Localization in Sensor Networks with Adverse Anchor Placement
by King-Yip Cheng, King-Shan Lui and Vincent Tam
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 253-280; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100253 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 9611
Abstract
To determine the geographical positions of sensors, numerous localization algorithms have been proposed in recent years. The positions of sensors are inferred from the connectivity between sensors and a set of nodes called anchors which know their precise locations. We investigate the effect [...] Read more.
To determine the geographical positions of sensors, numerous localization algorithms have been proposed in recent years. The positions of sensors are inferred from the connectivity between sensors and a set of nodes called anchors which know their precise locations. We investigate the effect of adverse placement and density of anchors on the accuracies of different algorithms. We develop an algorithm called HyBrid Localization (HyBloc) to provide reliable localization service with a limited number of clustered anchors. HyBloc is distributed in nature with reasonable message overhead. Through simulations, we demonstrate that HyBloc provides more accurate location estimates than some existing distributed algorithms when there are only a few anchors. HyBloc also performs well when anchors are clustered together. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Algorithms)
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471 KiB  
Article
Simulation of Greenhouse Climate Monitoring and Control with Wireless Sensor Network and Event-Based Control
by Andrzej Pawlowski, Jose Luis Guzman, Francisco Rodríguez, Manuel Berenguel, José Sánchez and Sebastián Dormido
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 232-252; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100232 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 129 | Viewed by 22898
Abstract
Monitoring and control of the greenhouse environment play a decisive role in greenhouse production processes. Assurance of optimal climate conditions has a direct influence on crop growth performance, but it usually increases the required equipment cost. Traditionally, greenhouse installations have required a great [...] Read more.
Monitoring and control of the greenhouse environment play a decisive role in greenhouse production processes. Assurance of optimal climate conditions has a direct influence on crop growth performance, but it usually increases the required equipment cost. Traditionally, greenhouse installations have required a great effort to connect and distribute all the sensors and data acquisition systems. These installations need many data and power wires to be distributed along the greenhouses, making the system complex and expensive. For this reason, and others such as unavailability of distributed actuators, only individual sensors are usually located in a fixed point that is selected as representative of the overall greenhouse dynamics. On the other hand, the actuation system in greenhouses is usually composed by mechanical devices controlled by relays, being desirable to reduce the number of commutations of the control signals from security and economical point of views. Therefore, and in order to face these drawbacks, this paper describes how the greenhouse climate control can be represented as an event-based system in combination with wireless sensor networks, where low-frequency dynamics variables have to be controlled and control actions are mainly calculated against events produced by external disturbances. The proposed control system allows saving costs related with wear minimization and prolonging the actuator life, but keeping promising performance results. Analysis and conclusions are given by means of simulation results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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120 KiB  
Article
Determination of Antimony (III) in Real Samples by Anodic Stripping Voltammetry Using a Mercury Film Screen-Printed Electrode
by Olga Domínguez-Renedo, M. Jesús Gómez González and M. Julia Arcos-Martínez
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 219-231; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100219 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 11072
Abstract
This paper describes a procedure for the determination of antimony (III) by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry using a mercury film screen-printed electrode as the working electrode. The procedure has been optimized using experimental design methodology. Under these conditions, in terms of Residual [...] Read more.
This paper describes a procedure for the determination of antimony (III) by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry using a mercury film screen-printed electrode as the working electrode. The procedure has been optimized using experimental design methodology. Under these conditions, in terms of Residual Standard Deviation (RSD), the repeatability (3.81 %) and the reproducibility (5.07 %) of the constructed electrodes were both analyzed. The detection limit for Sb (III) was calculated at a value of 1.27×10–8 M. The linear range obtained was between 0.99 × 10–8 – 8.26 × 10–8 M. An analysis of possible effects due to the presence of foreign ions in the solution was performed and the procedure was successfully applied to the determination of antimony levels in pharmaceutical preparations and sea water samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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Article
Multi-Channel Morphological Profiles for Classification of Hyperspectral Images Using Support Vector Machines
by Javier Plaza, Antonio J. Plaza and Cristina Barra
Sensors 2009, 9(1), 196-218; https://doi.org/10.3390/s90100196 - 08 Jan 2009
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 15737
Abstract
Hyperspectral imaging is a new remote sensing technique that generates hundreds of images, corresponding to different wavelength channels, for the same area on the surface of the Earth. Supervised classification of hyperspectral image data sets is a challenging problem due to the limited [...] Read more.
Hyperspectral imaging is a new remote sensing technique that generates hundreds of images, corresponding to different wavelength channels, for the same area on the surface of the Earth. Supervised classification of hyperspectral image data sets is a challenging problem due to the limited availability of training samples (which are very difficult and costly to obtain in practice) and the extremely high dimensionality of the data. In this paper, we explore the use of multi-channel morphological profiles for feature extraction prior to classification of remotely sensed hyperspectral data sets using support vector machines (SVMs). In order to introduce multi-channel morphological transformations, which rely on ordering of pixel vectors in multidimensional space, several vector ordering strategies are investigated. A reduced implementation which builds the multi-channel morphological profile based on the first components resulting from a dimensional reduction transformation applied to the input data is also proposed. Our experimental results, conducted using three representative hyperspectral data sets collected by NASA’s Airborne Visible-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) sensor and the German Digital Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (DAIS 7915), reveal that multi-channel morphological profiles can improve single-channel morphological profiles in the task of extracting relevant features for classification of hyperspectral data using small training sets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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