Sensors

23 pages, 7998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Person Re-Identification Using Deep Modeling of Temporally Correlated Inertial Motion Patterns

by Imad Gohar, Qaiser Riaz, Muhammad Shahzad, Muhammad Zeeshan Ul Hasnain Hashmi, Hasan Tahir and Muhammad Ehsan Ul Haq

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 949; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030949 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4402

Abstract

Person re-identification (re-ID) is among the essential components that play an integral role in constituting an automated surveillance environment. Majorly, the problem is tackled using data acquired from vision sensors using appearance-based features, which are strongly dependent on visual cues such as color, [...] Read more.

Person re-identification (re-ID) is among the essential components that play an integral role in constituting an automated surveillance environment. Majorly, the problem is tackled using data acquired from vision sensors using appearance-based features, which are strongly dependent on visual cues such as color, texture, etc., consequently limiting the precise re-identification of an individual. To overcome such strong dependence on visual features, many researchers have tackled the re-identification problem using human gait, which is believed to be unique and provide a distinctive biometric signature that is particularly suitable for re-ID in uncontrolled environments. However, image-based gait analysis often fails to extract quality measurements of an individual’s motion patterns owing to problems related to variations in viewpoint, illumination (daylight), clothing, worn accessories, etc. To this end, in contrast to relying on image-based motion measurement, this paper demonstrates the potential to re-identify an individual using inertial measurements units (IMU) based on two common sensors, namely gyroscope and accelerometer. The experiment was carried out over data acquired using smartphones and wearable IMUs from a total of 86 randomly selected individuals including 49 males and 37 females between the ages of 17 and 72 years. The data signals were first segmented into single steps and strides, which were separately fed to train a sequential deep recurrent neural network to capture implicit arbitrary long-term temporal dependencies. The experimental setup was devised in a fashion to train the network on all the subjects using data related to half of the step and stride sequences only while the inference was performed on the remaining half for the purpose of re-identification. The obtained experimental results demonstrate the potential to reliably and accurately re-identify an individual based on one’s inertial sensor data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 1363 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fuzzy Self-tuning Tracking Differentiator for Motion Measurement Sensors and Application in Wide-Bandwidth High-accuracy Servo Control

by Yang Gao, Dapeng Tian and Yutang Wang

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 948; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030948 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2507

Abstract

Sensor differential signals are widely used in many systems. The tracking differentiator (TD) is an effective method to obtain signal differentials. Differential calculation is noise-sensitive. There is the characteristics of low-pass filter (LPF) in the TD to suppress the noise, but phase lag [...] Read more.

Sensor differential signals are widely used in many systems. The tracking differentiator (TD) is an effective method to obtain signal differentials. Differential calculation is noise-sensitive. There is the characteristics of low-pass filter (LPF) in the TD to suppress the noise, but phase lag is introduced. For LPF, fixed filtering parameters cannot achieve both noise suppression and phase compensation lag compensation. We propose a fuzzy self-tuning tracking differentiator (FSTD) capable of adaptively adjusting parameters, which uses the frequency information of the signal to achieve a trade-off between the phase lag and noise suppression capabilities. Based on the frequency information, the parameters of TD are self-tuning by a fuzzy method, which makes self-tuning designs more flexible. Simulations and experiments using motion measurement sensors show that the proposed method has good filtering performance for low-frequency signals and improves tracking ability for high-frequency signals compared to fixed-parameter differentiator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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21 pages, 1164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Field Calibration of Triaxial Accelerometer Based on Beetle Swarm Antenna Search Algorithm

by Pengfei Wang, Yanbin Gao, Menghao Wu, Fan Zhang and Guangchun Li

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 947; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030947 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3121

Abstract

Traditional calibration method is usually performed with expensive equipments such as three-axis turntable in a laboratory environment. However in practice, in order to ensure the accuracy and stability of the inertial navigation system (INS), it is usually necessary to recalibrate the inertial measurement [...] Read more.

Traditional calibration method is usually performed with expensive equipments such as three-axis turntable in a laboratory environment. However in practice, in order to ensure the accuracy and stability of the inertial navigation system (INS), it is usually necessary to recalibrate the inertial measurement unit (IMU) without external equipment in the field. In this paper, a new in-field recalibration method for triaxial accelerometer based on beetle swarm antenna search (BSAS) algorithm is proposed. Firstly, as a new intelligent optimization algorithm, BSAS algorithm and its improvements based on basic beetle antennae search (BAS) algorithm are introduced in detail. Secondly, the nonlinear mathematical model of triaxial accelerometer is established for higher calibration accuracy, and then 24 optimal measurement positions are designed by theoretical analysis. In addition, the calibration procedures are improved according to the characteristics of BSAS algorithm, then 15 calibration parameters in the nonlinear method are optimized by BSAS algorithm. Besides, the results of BSAS algorithm and basic BAS algorithm are compared by simulation, which shows the priority of BSAS algorithm in calibration field. Finally, two experiments demonstrate that the proposed method can achieve high precision in-field calibration without any external equipment, and meet the accuracy requirements of the INS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 21720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Fall Detection Based on Body Posture Spatio-Temporal Evolution

by Jin Zhang, Cheng Wu and Yiming Wang

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 946; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030946 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6407

Abstract

Abnormal falls in public places have significant safety hazards and can easily lead to serious consequences, such as trampling by people. Vision-driven fall event detection has the huge advantage of being non-invasive. However, in actual scenes, the fall behavior is rich in diversity, [...] Read more.

Abnormal falls in public places have significant safety hazards and can easily lead to serious consequences, such as trampling by people. Vision-driven fall event detection has the huge advantage of being non-invasive. However, in actual scenes, the fall behavior is rich in diversity, resulting in strong instability in detection. Based on the study of the stability of human body dynamics, the article proposes a new model of human posture representation of fall behavior, called the “five-point inverted pendulum model”, and uses an improved two-branch multi-stage convolutional neural network (M-CNN) to extract and construct the inverted pendulum structure of human posture in real-world complex scenes. Furthermore, we consider the continuity of the fall event in time series, use multimedia analytics to observe the time series changes of human inverted pendulum structure, and construct a spatio-temporal evolution map of human posture movement. Finally, based on the integrated results of computer vision and multimedia analytics, we reveal the visual characteristics of the spatio-temporal evolution of human posture under the potentially unstable state, and explore two key features of human fall behavior: motion rotational energy and generalized force of motion. The experimental results in actual scenes show that the method has strong robustness, wide universality, and high detection accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Sensing Techniques in Ambient Intelligence)

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23 pages, 685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The OLYMPUS Architecture—Oblivious Identity Management for Private User-Friendly Services

by Rafael Torres Moreno, Jorge Bernal Bernabe, Jesús García Rodríguez, Tore Kasper Frederiksen, Michael Stausholm, Noelia Martínez, Evangelos Sakkopoulos, Nuno Ponte and Antonio Skarmeta

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 945; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030945 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4423

Abstract

Privacy enhancing technologies (PETs) allow to achieve user’s transactions unlinkability across different online Service Providers. However, current PETs fail to guarantee unlinkability against the Identity Provider (IdP), which becomes a single point of failure in terms of privacy and security, and therefore, might [...] Read more.

Privacy enhancing technologies (PETs) allow to achieve user’s transactions unlinkability across different online Service Providers. However, current PETs fail to guarantee unlinkability against the Identity Provider (IdP), which becomes a single point of failure in terms of privacy and security, and therefore, might impersonate its users. To address this issue, OLYMPUS EU project establishes an interoperable framework of technologies for a distributed privacy-preserving identity management based on cryptographic techniques that can be applied both to online and offline scenarios. Namely, distributed cryptographic techniques based on threshold cryptography are used to split up the role of the Identity Provider (IdP) into several authorities so that a single entity is not able to impersonate or track its users. The architecture leverages PET technologies, such as distributed threshold-based signatures and privacy attribute-based credentials (p-ABC), so that the signed tokens and the ABC credentials are managed in a distributed way by several IdPs. This paper describes the Olympus architecture, including its associated requirements, the main building blocks and processes, as well as the associated use cases. In addition, the paper shows how the Olympus oblivious architecture can be used to achieve privacy-preserving M2M offline transactions between IoT devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 3rd Global IoT Summit)

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20 pages, 8341 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chiral Plasmonics and Their Potential for Point-of-Care Biosensing Applications

by Willian A. Paiva-Marques, Faustino Reyes Gómez, Osvaldo N. Oliveira, Jr. and J. Ricardo Mejía-Salazar

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 944; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030944 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6705

Abstract

There has been growing interest in using strong field enhancement and light localization in plasmonic nanostructures to control the polarization properties of light. Various experimental techniques are now used to fabricate twisted metallic nanoparticles and metasurfaces, where strongly enhanced chiral near-fields are used [...] Read more.

There has been growing interest in using strong field enhancement and light localization in plasmonic nanostructures to control the polarization properties of light. Various experimental techniques are now used to fabricate twisted metallic nanoparticles and metasurfaces, where strongly enhanced chiral near-fields are used to intensify circular dichroism (CD) signals. In this review, state-of-the-art strategies to develop such chiral plasmonic nanoparticles and metasurfaces are summarized, with emphasis on the most recent trends for the design and development of functionalizable surfaces. The major objective is to perform enantiomer selection which is relevant in pharmaceutical applications and for biosensing. Enhanced sensing capabilities are key for the design and manufacture of lab-on-a-chip devices, commonly named point-of-care biosensing devices, which are promising for next-generation healthcare systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomaterials for Chemical Sensors)

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18 pages, 7890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Metamaterials-Based Hypersensitized Liquid Sensor Integrating Omega-Shaped Resonator with Microstrip Transmission Line

by Yadgar I. Abdulkarim, Lianwen Deng, Muharrem Karaaslan, Olcay Altıntaş, Halgurd N. Awl, Fahmi F. Muhammadsharif, Congwei Liao, Emin Unal and Heng Luo

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 943; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030943 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 5491

Abstract

In this paper, a new metamaterials-based hypersensitized liquid sensor integrating omega-shaped resonator with microstrip transmission line is proposed. Microwave transmission responses to industrial energy-based liquids are investigated intensively from both numerical and experimental point of view. Simulation results concerning three-dimensional electromagnetic fields have [...] Read more.

In this paper, a new metamaterials-based hypersensitized liquid sensor integrating omega-shaped resonator with microstrip transmission line is proposed. Microwave transmission responses to industrial energy-based liquids are investigated intensively from both numerical and experimental point of view. Simulation results concerning three-dimensional electromagnetic fields have shown that the transmission coefficient of the resonator could be monitored by the magnetic coupling between the transmission line and omega resonator. This sensor structure has been examined by methanol–water and ethanol–water mixtures. Moreover, the designed sensor is demonstrated to be very sensitive for identifying clean and waste transformer oils. A linear response characteristic of shifting the resonance frequency upon the increment of chemical contents/concentrations or changing the oil condition is observed. In addition to the high agreement of transmission coefficients (S21) between simulations and experiments, obvious resonant-frequency shift of transmission spectrum is recognized for typical pure chemical liquids (i.e., PEG 300, isopropyl alcohol, PEG1500, ammonia, and water), giving rise to identify the type and concentration of the chemical liquids. The novelty of the work is to utilize Q factor and minimum value of S21 as sensing agent in the proposed structure, which are seen to be well compatible at different frequencies ranging from 1–20 GHz. This metamaterial integrated transmission line-based sensor is considered to be promising candidate for precise detection of fluidics and for applications in the field of medicine and chemistry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Materials)

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16 pages, 6542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of a Body-Conducted Sound Sensor for Respiratory Sound Monitoring and a Comparison with Several Sensors

by Takeshi Joyashiki and Chikamune Wada

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 942; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030942 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8487

Abstract

The ideal respiratory sound sensor exhibits high sensitivity, wide-band frequency characteristics, and excellent anti-noise properties. We investigated the body-conducted sound sensor (BCS) and verified its usefulness in respiratory sound monitoring through comparison with an air-coupled microphone (ACM) and acceleration sensor (B & K: [...] Read more.

The ideal respiratory sound sensor exhibits high sensitivity, wide-band frequency characteristics, and excellent anti-noise properties. We investigated the body-conducted sound sensor (BCS) and verified its usefulness in respiratory sound monitoring through comparison with an air-coupled microphone (ACM) and acceleration sensor (B & K: 8001). We conducted four experiments for comparison: (1) estimation by equivalent circuit model of sensors and measurement by a sensitivity evaluation system; (2) measurement of tissue-borne sensitivity-to-air-noise sensitivity ratio (SRTA); (3) respiratory sound measurement through a simulator; and (4) actual respiratory sound measurement using human subjects. For (1), the simulation and measured values of all the sensors showed good agreement; BCS demonstrated sensitivity ~10 dB higher than ACM and higher sensitivity in the high-frequency segments compared with 8001. In (2), BCS showed high SRTA in the 600–1000 and 1200–2000-Hz frequency segments. In (3), BCS detected wheezes in the high-frequency segments of the respiratory sound. Finally, in (4), the sensors showed similar characteristics and features in the high-frequency segments as the simulators, where typical breathing sound detection was possible. BCS displayed a higher sensitivity and anti-noise property in high-frequency segments compared with the other sensors and is a useful respiratory sound sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Sensors)

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21 pages, 2651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emphasis Learning, Features Repetition in Width Instead of Length to Improve Classification Performance: Case Study—Alzheimer’s Disease Diagnosis

by Hamid Akramifard, MohammadAli Balafar, SeyedNaser Razavi and Abd Rahman Ramli

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 941; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030941 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2945

Abstract

In the past decade, many studies have been conducted to advance computer-aided systems for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) diagnosis. Most of them have recently developed systems concentrated on extracting and combining features from MRI, PET, and CSF. For the most part, they have obtained [...] Read more.

In the past decade, many studies have been conducted to advance computer-aided systems for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) diagnosis. Most of them have recently developed systems concentrated on extracting and combining features from MRI, PET, and CSF. For the most part, they have obtained very high performance. However, improving the performance of a classification problem is complicated, specifically when the model’s accuracy or other performance measurements are higher than 90%. In this study, a novel methodology is proposed to address this problem, specifically in Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis classification. This methodology is the first of its kind in the literature, based on the notion of replication on the feature space instead of the traditional sample space. Briefly, the main steps of the proposed method include extracting, embedding, and exploring the best subset of features. For feature extraction, we adopt VBM-SPM; for embedding features, a concatenation strategy is used on the features to ultimately create one feature vector for each subject. Principal component analysis is applied to extract new features, forming a low-dimensional compact space. A novel process is applied by replicating selected components, assessing the classification model, and repeating the replication until performance divergence or convergence. The proposed method aims to explore most significant features and highest-preforming model at the same time, to classify normal subjects from AD and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients. In each epoch, a small subset of candidate features is assessed by support vector machine (SVM) classifier. This repeating procedure is continued until the highest performance is achieved. Experimental results reveal the highest performance reported in the literature for this specific classification problem. We obtained a model with accuracies of 98.81%, 81.61%, and 81.40% for AD vs. normal control (NC), MCI vs. NC, and AD vs. MCI classification, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Signal Processing for Disease Diagnosis)

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11 pages, 809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Percentiles and Reference Values for the Accelerometric Assessment of Static Balance in Women Aged 50–80 Years

by Raquel Leirós-Rodríguez, Vicente Romo-Pérez, Jose Luis García-Soidán and Jesús García-Liñeira

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 940; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030940 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3102

Abstract

The identification of factors that alter postural stability is fundamental in the design of interventions to maintain independence and mobility. This is especially important for women because of their longer life expectancy and higher incidence of falls compared to men. The objective of [...] Read more.

The identification of factors that alter postural stability is fundamental in the design of interventions to maintain independence and mobility. This is especially important for women because of their longer life expectancy and higher incidence of falls compared to men. The objective of this study was to construct the percentile box charts and determine the values of reference for the accelerometric assessment of the static balance in women. For this, an observational and cross-sectional study with a sample composed of 496 women (68.8 ± 10.4 years old) was conducted. The measurement of accelerations used a triaxial accelerometer during three tests: two tests on the ground in monopodal support and a test on a mat with monopodal support for 30 s each. In all of the variables, an increase in the magnitude of the accelerations was detected as the age advanced. The box charts of the percentiles of the tests show the amplitude of the interquartile ranges, which increased as the age advanced. The values obtained can be used to assess changes in static balance due to aging, trauma and orthopaedic and neurodegenerative alterations that may alter postural stability and increase the risk of falling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Techniques and Methods for Movement Analysis)

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18 pages, 26226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Learning Mobile Manipulation through Deep Reinforcement Learning

by Cong Wang, Qifeng Zhang, Qiyan Tian, Shuo Li, Xiaohui Wang, David Lane, Yvan Petillot and Sen Wang

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 939; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030939 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 14035

Abstract

Mobile manipulation has a broad range of applications in robotics. However, it is usually more challenging than fixed-base manipulation due to the complex coordination of a mobile base and a manipulator. Although recent works have demonstrated that deep reinforcement learning is a powerful [...] Read more.

Mobile manipulation has a broad range of applications in robotics. However, it is usually more challenging than fixed-base manipulation due to the complex coordination of a mobile base and a manipulator. Although recent works have demonstrated that deep reinforcement learning is a powerful technique for fixed-base manipulation tasks, most of them are not applicable to mobile manipulation. This paper investigates how to leverage deep reinforcement learning to tackle whole-body mobile manipulation tasks in unstructured environments using only on-board sensors. A novel mobile manipulation system which integrates the state-of-the-art deep reinforcement learning algorithms with visual perception is proposed. It has an efficient framework decoupling visual perception from the deep reinforcement learning control, which enables its generalization from simulation training to real-world testing. Extensive simulation and experiment results show that the proposed mobile manipulation system is able to grasp different types of objects autonomously in various simulation and real-world scenarios, verifying the effectiveness of the proposed mobile manipulation system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Networked Sensing for Autonomous Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications)

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16 pages, 1190 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Achievable Capacity of MIMO-OFDM Systems in the CathLab Environment

by João Guerreiro, Rui Dinis and Luís Campos

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 938; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030938 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3009

Abstract

In the last years, the evolution of digital communications has been harnessed by medical applications. In that context, wireless communications are preferable over wired communications, as they facilitate the work of health technicians by reducing cabling on the stretchers. However, the use of [...] Read more.

In the last years, the evolution of digital communications has been harnessed by medical applications. In that context, wireless communications are preferable over wired communications, as they facilitate the work of health technicians by reducing cabling on the stretchers. However, the use of wireless communications is challenging, especially when high data rates and low latencies are required. In those scenarios, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) techniques might have an important role, thanks to the high capacity gains that they can exhibit, which ideally increase with the MIMO size. In this work, we study the propagation scenario of a typical medical laboratory through ray-tracing techniques. By taking into account the derived channel model, we study the potential of MIMO techniques in an IEEE 802.11ax environment. Through a set of performance results regarding the system capacity, we show that the MIMO gains might not be as high as supposed in the medical laboratory, being far from the ideal scenario. Therefore, the large data rates required by the modern medical imaging applications might only be achieved with a combination of MIMO systems and large bandwidths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Sensors)

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25 pages, 9183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of the Real Cracking Moment of Two Reinforced Concrete Beams through the Use of Embedded Fiber Optic Sensors

by Julián García Díaz, Nieves Navarro Cano and Edelmiro Rúa Álvarez

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030937 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5310

Abstract

This article investigates the possibility of applying weldable optic fiber sensors to the corrugated rebar in reinforced concrete structures to detect cracks and measure the deformation of the steel. Arrays have initially been designed comprised of two weldable optic fiber sensors, and one [...] Read more.

This article investigates the possibility of applying weldable optic fiber sensors to the corrugated rebar in reinforced concrete structures to detect cracks and measure the deformation of the steel. Arrays have initially been designed comprised of two weldable optic fiber sensors, and one temperature sensor to compensate its effect in measuring deformations. A series of tests were performed on the structures to evaluate functioning of the sensors, and the results obtained from the deformation measures shown by the sensors have been stored using specific software. Two reinforced concrete beams simply resting on the support have been designed to perform the tests, and they have been monitored in the zones with maximum flexion moment. Different loading steps have been applied to the beams at the center of the span, using a loading cylinder, and the measurement of the load applied has been determined using a loading cell. The analysis of the deformation measurements of the corrugated rebar obtained by the optic fiber sensors has allowed us to determine the moment at which the concrete has cracked due to the effect of the loads applied and the deformation it has suffered by the effect of the different loading steps applied to the beams. This means that this method of measuring deformations in the corrugated rebar by weldable optic fiber sensors provides very precise results. Future lines of research will concentrate on determining an expression that indicates the real cracking moment of the concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring)

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21 pages, 6330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Signal-to-Noise Ratio of Brillouin Grating Measurement with Micrometer-Resolution Optical Low Coherence Reflectometry

by Kazumasa Takada, Shin-ichi Satoh and Akiya Kawakami

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030936 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2993

Abstract

Signal-dependent speckle-like noise was the dominant noise in a Brillouin grating measurement with micrometer-resolution optical low coherence reflectometry (OLCR). The noise was produced by the interaction of a Stokes signal with beat noise caused by a leaked pump light via square-law detection. The [...] Read more.

Signal-dependent speckle-like noise was the dominant noise in a Brillouin grating measurement with micrometer-resolution optical low coherence reflectometry (OLCR). The noise was produced by the interaction of a Stokes signal with beat noise caused by a leaked pump light via square-law detection. The resultant signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) was calculated and found to be proportional to the square root of the dynamic range (DR) defined by the ratio of the Stokes signal magnitude to the variance of the beat noise. The calculation showed that even when we achieved a DR of 20 dB on a logarithmic scale, the SNR value was only 7 on a linear scale and the detected signal tended to fluctuate over ±14% with respect to the mean level. We achieved an SNR of 24 by attenuating the pump light power entering the balanced mixer by 55 dB, and this success enabled us to measure the Brillouin spectrum distributions of mated fiber connectors and a 3-dB fused fiber coupler with a micrometer resolution as examples of OLCR diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)

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18 pages, 6333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active 3D Imaging of Vegetation Based on Multi-Wavelength Fluorescence LiDAR

by Xingmin Zhao, Shuo Shi, Jian Yang, Wei Gong, Jia Sun, Biwu Chen, Kuanghui Guo and Bowen Chen

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 935; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030935 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3435

Abstract

Comprehensive and accurate vegetation monitoring is required in forestry and agricultural applications. The optical remote sensing method could be a solution. However, the traditional light detection and ranging (LiDAR) scans a surface to create point clouds and provide only 3D-state information. Active laser-induced [...] Read more.

Comprehensive and accurate vegetation monitoring is required in forestry and agricultural applications. The optical remote sensing method could be a solution. However, the traditional light detection and ranging (LiDAR) scans a surface to create point clouds and provide only 3D-state information. Active laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) only measures the photosynthesis and biochemical status of vegetation and lacks information about spatial structures. In this work, we present a new Multi-Wavelength Fluorescence LiDAR (MWFL) system. The system extended the multi-channel fluorescence detection of LIF on the basis of the LiDAR scanning and ranging mechanism. Based on the principle prototype of the MWFL system, we carried out vegetation-monitoring experiments in the laboratory. The results showed that MWFL simultaneously acquires the 3D spatial structure and physiological states for precision vegetation monitoring. Laboratory experiments on interior scenes verified the system’s performance. Fluorescence point cloud classification results were evaluated at four wavelengths and by comparing them with normal vectors, to assess the MWFL system capabilities. The overall classification accuracy and Kappa coefficient increased from 70.7% and 0.17 at the single wavelength to 88.9% and 0.75 at four wavelengths. The overall classification accuracy and Kappa coefficient improved from 76.2% and 0.29 at the normal vectors to 92.5% and 0.84 at the normal vectors with four wavelengths. The study demonstrated that active 3D fluorescence imaging of vegetation based on the MWFL system has a great application potential in the field of remote sensing detection and vegetation monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging Sensors and Applications)

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11 pages, 3346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Continuous Monitoring of Air Purification: A Study on Volatile Organic Compounds in a Gas Cell

by Alaa Fathy, Marie Le Pivert, Young Jai Kim, Mame Ousmane Ba, Mazen Erfan, Yasser M. Sabry, Diaa Khalil, Yamin Leprince-Wang, Tarik Bourouina and Martine Gnambodoe-Capochichi

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030934 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4204

Abstract

Air pollution is one of the major environmental issues that humanity is facing. Considering Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are among the most harmful gases that need to be detected, but also need to be eliminated using air purification technologies. [...] Read more.

Air pollution is one of the major environmental issues that humanity is facing. Considering Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are among the most harmful gases that need to be detected, but also need to be eliminated using air purification technologies. In this work, we tackle both problems simultaneously by introducing an experimental setup enabling continuous measurement of the VOCs by online absorption spectroscopy using a MEMS-based Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer, while those VOCs are continuously eliminated by continuous adsorption and photocatalysis, using zinc oxide nanowires (ZnO-NWs). The proposed setup enabled a preliminary study of the mechanisms involved in the purification process of acetone and toluene, taken as two different VOCs, also typical of those that can be found in tobacco smoke. Our experiments revealed very different behaviors for those two gases. An elimination ratio of 63% in 3 h was achieved for toluene, while it was only 14% for acetone under same conditions. Adsorption to the nanowires appears as the dominant mechanism for the acetone, while photocatalysis is dominant in case of the toluene. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Sensing Based on Microscale Devices)

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21 pages, 3259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Security on Touch-Screen Sensors with Augmented Handwritten Signatures

by Majd Abazid, Nesma Houmani and Sonia Garcia-Salicetti

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 933; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030933 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3737

Abstract

We aim at enhancing personal identity security on mobile touch-screen sensors by augmenting handwritten signatures with specific additional information at the enrollment phase. Our former works on several available and private data sets acquired on different sensors demonstrated that there are different categories [...] Read more.

We aim at enhancing personal identity security on mobile touch-screen sensors by augmenting handwritten signatures with specific additional information at the enrollment phase. Our former works on several available and private data sets acquired on different sensors demonstrated that there are different categories of signatures that emerge automatically with clustering techniques, based on an entropy-based data quality measure. The behavior of such categories is totally different when confronted to automatic verification systems in terms of vulnerability to attacks. In this paper, we propose a novel and original strategy to reinforce identity security by enhancing signature resistance to attacks, assessed per signature category, both in terms of data quality and verification performance. This strategy operates upstream from the verification system, at the sensor level, by enriching the information content of signatures with personal handwritten inputs of different types. We study this strategy on different signature types of 74 users, acquired in uncontrolled mobile conditions on a largely deployed mobile touch-screen sensor. Our analysis per writer category revealed that adding alphanumeric (date) and handwriting (place) information to the usual signature is the most powerful augmented signature type in terms of verification performance. The relative improvement for all user categories is of at least 93% compared to the usual signature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biometric Systems)

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17 pages, 4156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Visual Ship Tracking with an Ensemble Framework via Multi-View Learning and Wavelet Filter

by Xinqiang Chen, Huixing Chen, Huafeng Wu, Yanguo Huang, Yongsheng Yang, Wenhui Zhang and Pengwen Xiong

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 932; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030932 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3210

Abstract

Maritime surveillance videos provide crucial on-spot kinematic traffic information (traffic volume, ship speeds, headings, etc.) for varied traffic participants (maritime regulation departments, ship crew, ship owners, etc.) which greatly benefits automated maritime situational awareness and maritime safety improvement. Conventional models heavily rely on [...] Read more.

Maritime surveillance videos provide crucial on-spot kinematic traffic information (traffic volume, ship speeds, headings, etc.) for varied traffic participants (maritime regulation departments, ship crew, ship owners, etc.) which greatly benefits automated maritime situational awareness and maritime safety improvement. Conventional models heavily rely on visual ship features for the purpose of tracking ships from maritime image sequences which may contain arbitrary tracking oscillations. To address this issue, we propose an ensemble ship tracking framework with a multi-view learning algorithm and wavelet filter model. First, the proposed model samples ship candidates with a particle filter following the sequential importance sampling rule. Second, we propose a multi-view learning algorithm to obtain raw ship tracking results in two steps: extracting a group of distinct ship contour relevant features (i.e., Laplacian of Gaussian, local binary pattern, Gabor filter, histogram of oriented gradient, and canny descriptors) and learning high-level intrinsic ship features by jointly exploiting underlying relationships shared by each type of ship contour features. Third, with the help of the wavelet filter, we performed a data quality control procedure to identify abnormal oscillations in the ship positions which were further corrected to generate the final ship tracking results. We demonstrate the proposed ship tracker’s performance on typical maritime traffic scenarios through four maritime surveillance videos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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16 pages, 1764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Movements of Ataxia Patient by Using UWB Technology

by Tanjila Akter Zilani, Fadi Al-Turjman, Muhammad Bilal Khan, Nan Zhao and Xiaodong Yang

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 931; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030931 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3759

Abstract

Internet of multimedia things (IoMT) driving innovative product development in health care applications. IoMT requires delay-sensitive and higher bandwidth devices. Ultra-wideband (UWB) technology is a promising solution to improve communication between devices, tracking and monitoring of patients. In the future, this technology has [...] Read more.

Internet of multimedia things (IoMT) driving innovative product development in health care applications. IoMT requires delay-sensitive and higher bandwidth devices. Ultra-wideband (UWB) technology is a promising solution to improve communication between devices, tracking and monitoring of patients. In the future, this technology has the capability to expand the IoMT world with new capabilities and more devices can be integrated. At the present time, some people face different types of physiological problems because of the damage in different areas of the central nervous system. Thus, they lose their balance coordination. One of these types of coordination problems is named Ataxia, in which patients are unable to control their body movements. This kind of coordination disorder needs a proper supervision system for the caretaker. Previous Ataxia assessment methods are cumbersome and cannot handle regular monitoring and tracking of patients. One of the most challenging tasks is to detect different walking abnormalities of Ataxia patients. In our paper, we present a technique for monitoring and tracking of a patient with the help of UWB technology. This method expands the real-time location systems (RTLS) in the indoor environment by placing wearable receiving tags on the body of Ataxia patients. The location and four different walking movement data are collected by UWB transceiver for the classification and prediction in the two-dimensional path. For accurate classification, we use a support vector machine (SVM) algorithm to clarify the movement variations. Our proposed examined result successfully achieved and the accuracy is above 95%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internet of Multimedia Things (IoMT): Opportunities, Challenges and Solutions)

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20 pages, 1112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

FDD Channel Estimation Via Covariance Estimation in Wideband Massive MIMO Systems

by José P. González-Coma, Pedro Suárez-Casal, Paula M. Castro and Luis Castedo

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 930; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030930 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2824

Abstract

A method for channel estimation in wideband massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output systems using hybrid digital analog architectures is developed. The proposed method is useful for Frequency-Division Duplex at either sub-6 GHz or millimeter wave frequency bands and takes into account the beam squint effect [...] Read more.

A method for channel estimation in wideband massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output systems using hybrid digital analog architectures is developed. The proposed method is useful for Frequency-Division Duplex at either sub-6 GHz or millimeter wave frequency bands and takes into account the beam squint effect caused by the large bandwidth of the signals. To circumvent the estimation of large channel vectors, the posed algorithm relies on the slow time variation of the channel spatial covariance matrix, thus allowing for the utilization of very short training sequences. This is possibledue to the exploitation of the channel structure. After identifying the channel covariance matrix, the channel is estimated on the basis of the recovered information. To that end, we propose a novel method that relies on estimating the tap delays and the gains as sociated with each path. As a consequence, the proposed channel estimator achieves low computational complexity and significantly reduces the training overhead. Moreover, our numerical simulations show better performance results compared to the minimum mean-squared error solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Millimeter-Wave Antenna Arrays: Design, Challenges, and Applications)

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23 pages, 18059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On-Line Visual Tracking with Occlusion Handling

by Tharindu Rathnayake, Amirali Khodadadian Gostar, Reza Hoseinnezhad, Ruwan Tennakoon and Alireza Bab-Hadiashar

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 929; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030929 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3404

Abstract

One of the core challenges in visual multi-target tracking is occlusion. This is especially important in applications such as video surveillance and sports analytics. While offline batch processing algorithms can utilise future measurements to handle occlusion effectively, online algorithms have to rely on [...] Read more.

One of the core challenges in visual multi-target tracking is occlusion. This is especially important in applications such as video surveillance and sports analytics. While offline batch processing algorithms can utilise future measurements to handle occlusion effectively, online algorithms have to rely on current and past measurements only. As such, it is markedly more challenging to handle occlusion in online applications. To address this problem, we propagate information over time in a way that it generates a sense of déjà vu when similar visual and motion features are observed. To achieve this, we extend the Generalized Labeled Multi-Bernoulli (GLMB) filter, originally designed for tracking point-sized targets, to be used in visual multi-target tracking. The proposed algorithm includes a novel false alarm detection/removal and label recovery methods capable of reliably recovering tracks that are even lost for a substantial period of time. We compare the performance of the proposed method with the state-of-the-art methods in challenging datasets using standard visual tracking metrics. Our comparisons show that the proposed method performs favourably compared to the state-of-the-art methods, particularly in terms of ID switches and fragmentation metrics which signifies occlusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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25 pages, 22091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hy-Bridge: A Hybrid Blockchain for Privacy-Preserving and Trustful Energy Transactions in Internet-of-Things Platforms

by Mahdi Daghmehchi Firoozjaei, Ali Ghorbani, Hyoungshick Kim and JaeSeung Song

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 928; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030928 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5515

Abstract

In the current centralized IoT ecosystems, all financial transactions are routed through IoT platform providers. The security and privacy issues are inevitable with an untrusted or compromised IoT platform provider. To address these issues, we propose Hy-Bridge, a hybrid blockchain-based billing and charging [...] Read more.

In the current centralized IoT ecosystems, all financial transactions are routed through IoT platform providers. The security and privacy issues are inevitable with an untrusted or compromised IoT platform provider. To address these issues, we propose Hy-Bridge, a hybrid blockchain-based billing and charging framework. In Hy-Bridge, the IoT platform provider plays no proxy role, and IoT users can securely and efficiently share a credit with other users. The trustful end-to-end functionality of blockchain helps us to provide accountability and reliability features in IoT transactions. Furthermore, with the blockchain-distributed consensus, we provide a credit-sharing feature for IoT users in the energy and utility market. To provide this feature, we introduce a local block framework for service management in the credit-sharing group. To preserve the IoT users’ privacy and avoid any information leakage to the main blockchain, an interconnection position, called bridge, is introduced to isolate IoT users’ peer-to-peer transactions and link the main blockchain to its subnetwork blockchain(s) in a hybrid model. To this end, a k-anonymity protection is performed on the bridge. To evaluate the performance of the introduced hybrid blockchain-based billing and charging, we simulated the energy use case scenario using Hy-Bridge. Our simulation results show that Hy-Bridge could protect user privacy with an acceptable level of information loss and CPU and memory usage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain in the Internet of Things: Opportunities, Challenges and Solutions)

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13 pages, 1534 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Inductive Current Transformers Performance Really Affected by Actual Distorted Network Conditions? An Experimental Case Study

by Alessandro Mingotti, Lorenzo Peretto, Lorenzo Bartolomei, Diego Cavaliere and Roberto Tinarelli

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 927; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030927 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3104

Abstract

The aim of this work is to assess whether actual distorted conditions of the network are really affecting the accuracy of inductive current transformers. The study started from the need to evaluate the accuracy performance of inductive current transformers in off-nominal conditions, and [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to assess whether actual distorted conditions of the network are really affecting the accuracy of inductive current transformers. The study started from the need to evaluate the accuracy performance of inductive current transformers in off-nominal conditions, and to improve the related standards. In fact, standards do not provide a uniform set of distorted waveforms to be applied on inductive or low-power instrument transformers. Moreover, there is no agreement yet, among the experts, about how to evaluate the uncertainty of the instrument transformer when the operating conditions are different from the rated ones. To this purpose, the authors collected currents from the power network and injected them into two off-the-shelf current transformers. Then, their accuracy performances have been evaluated by means of the well-known composite error index and an approximated version of it. The obtained results show that under realistic non-rated conditions of the network, the tested transformers show a very good behavior considering their nonlinear nature, arising the question in the title. A secondary result is that the use of the composite error should be more and more supported by the standards, considering its effectiveness in the accuracy evaluation of instrument transformers for measuring purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected papers from the 2019 IEEE International Worshop on Metrology for Industry 4.0 and IoT)

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20 pages, 6862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Model- and Soft-Transition-Based Height Soft Sensor for an Air Cushion Furnace

by Shuai Hou, Xinyuan Zhang, Wei Dai, Xiaolin Han and Fuan Hua

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 926; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030926 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2440

Abstract

The floating height of the strip in an air cushion furnace is a key parameter for the quality and efficiency of production. However, the high temperature and high pressure of the working environment prevents the floating height from being directly measured. Furthermore, the [...] Read more.

The floating height of the strip in an air cushion furnace is a key parameter for the quality and efficiency of production. However, the high temperature and high pressure of the working environment prevents the floating height from being directly measured. Furthermore, the strip has multiple floating states in the whole operation process. It is thus difficult to employ a single model to accurately describe the floating height in different states. This paper presents a multi-model soft sensor to estimate the height based on state identification and the soft transition. First, floating states were divided using a partition method that combined adaptive k-nearest neighbors and principal component analysis theories. Based on the identified results, a hybrid model for the stable state, involving a double-random forest model for the vibration state and a soft-transition model, was created to predict the strip floating height. In the hybrid model for the stable state, a mechanistic model combined thick jet theory and the equilibrium equation of force to cope with the lower floating height. In addition, a novel soft-transition model based on data gravitation that further reflects the intrinsic process characteristic was developed for the transition state. The effectiveness of the proposed approach was validated using a self-developed air cushion furnace experimental platform. This study has important value for the process prediction and control of air cushion furnaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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32 pages, 13637 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Estimations Based on Homomorphic Deconvolution for Time of Flight in Sound Source Localization System

by Yeonseok Park, Anthony Choi and Keonwook Kim

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 925; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030925 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2738

Abstract

Vehicle-mounted sound source localization systems provide comprehensive information to improve driving conditions by monitoring the surroundings. The three-dimensional structure of vehicles hinders the omnidirectional sound localization system because of the long and uneven propagation. In the received signal, the flight times between microphones [...] Read more.

Vehicle-mounted sound source localization systems provide comprehensive information to improve driving conditions by monitoring the surroundings. The three-dimensional structure of vehicles hinders the omnidirectional sound localization system because of the long and uneven propagation. In the received signal, the flight times between microphones delivers the essential information to locate the sound source. This paper proposes a novel method to design a sound localization system based on the single analog microphone network. This article involves the flight time estimation for two microphones with non-parametric homomorphic deconvolution. The parametric methods are also suggested with Yule-walker, Prony, and Steiglitz-McBride algorithm to derive the coefficient values of the propagation model for flight time estimation. The non-parametric and Steiglitz-McBride method demonstrated significantly low bias and variance for 20 or higher ensemble average length. The Yule-walker and Prony algorithms showed gradually improved statistical performance for increased ensemble average length. Hence, the non-parametric and parametric homomorphic deconvolution well represent the flight time information. The derived non-parametric and parametric output with distinct length will serve as the featured information for a complete localization system based on machine learning or deep learning in future works. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Sensors and Sensing Systems for Driving and Transportation)

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Graphical abstract

12 pages, 1529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Algorithm Design of MOF-based Gas Sensor Arrays for CO₂-in-Air Sensing

by Brian A. Day and Christopher E. Wilmer

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030924 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4824

Abstract

Gas sensor arrays, also known as electronic noses, leverage a diverse set of materials to identify the components of complex gas mixtures. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising materials for electronic noses due to their high-surface areas and chemical as well as [...] Read more.

Gas sensor arrays, also known as electronic noses, leverage a diverse set of materials to identify the components of complex gas mixtures. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising materials for electronic noses due to their high-surface areas and chemical as well as structural tunability. Using our recently reported genetic algorithm design approach, we examined a set of 50 MOFs and searched through over 1.125 × 10¹⁵ unique array combinations to identify optimal arrays for the detection of CO₂ in air. We found that despite individual MOFs having lower selectivity for O₂ or N₂ relative to CO₂, intelligently selecting the right combinations of MOFs enables accurate prediction of the concentrations of all components in the mixture (i.e., CO₂, O₂, N₂). We also analyzed the physical properties of the elements in the arrays to develop an intuition for improving array design. Notably, we found that an array whose MOFs have diversity in their volumetric surface areas has improved sensing. Consistent with this observation, we found that the best arrays consistently had greater structural diversity (e.g., pore sizes, void fractions, and surface areas) than the worst arrays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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12 pages, 8431 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Closed-Loop Control of Droplet Transfer in Electron-Beam Freeform Fabrication

by Shuhe Chang, Haoyu Zhang, Haiying Xu, Xinghua Sang, Li Wang, Dong Du and Baohua Chang

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030923 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2699

Abstract

In the process of electron-beam freeform fabrication deposition, the surface of the deposit layer becomes rough because of the instability of the feeding wire and the changing of the thermal diffusion condition. This will make the droplet transfer distance change in the deposition [...] Read more.

In the process of electron-beam freeform fabrication deposition, the surface of the deposit layer becomes rough because of the instability of the feeding wire and the changing of the thermal diffusion condition. This will make the droplet transfer distance change in the deposition process, and the droplet transfer cannot always be stable in the liquid bridge transfer state. It is easy to form a large droplet or make wire and substrate stick together, which makes the deposition quality worsen or even interrupts the deposition process. The current electron-beam freeform fabrication deposition is mostly open-loop control, so it is urgent to realize the real-time and closed-loop control of the droplet transfer and to make it stable in the liquid bridge transfer state. In this paper, a real-time monitoring method based on machine vision is proposed for the droplet transfer of electron-beam freeform fabrication. The detection accuracy is up to ± 0.08 mm. Based on this method, the measured droplet transfer distance is fed back to the platform control system in real time. This closed-loop control system can stabilize the droplet transfer distance within ± 0.14 mm. In order to improve the detection stability of the whole system, a droplet transfer detection algorithm suitable for this scenario has been written, which improves the adaptability of the droplet transfer distance detection method by means of dilatation/erosion, local minimum value suppression, and image segmentation. This algorithm can resist multiple disturbances, such as spatter, large droplet occlusion and so on. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 3774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Variations in Groundwater Revealed by GRACE and Its Driving Factors in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China

by Youzhe Su, Bin Guo, Ziteng Zhou, Yulong Zhong and Leilei Min

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030922 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3570

Abstract

The Huang-Huai-Hai (3H) Plain is the major crop-producing region in China. Due to the long-term overexploitation of groundwater for irrigation, the groundwater funnel is constantly expanding and the scarcity of water resources is prominent in this region. In this study, Gravity Recovery and [...] Read more.

The Huang-Huai-Hai (3H) Plain is the major crop-producing region in China. Due to the long-term overexploitation of groundwater for irrigation, the groundwater funnel is constantly expanding and the scarcity of water resources is prominent in this region. In this study, Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and hydrological models were used to estimate the spatial-temporal changes of groundwater storage (GWS) and the driving factors of GWS variations were discussed in the 3H Plain. The results showed that GRACE-based GWS was depleted at a rate of −1.14 ± 0.89 cm/y in the 3H Plain during 2003 to 2015. The maximum negative anomaly occurred in spring due to agricultural irrigation activities. Spatially, the loss of GWS in the Haihe River Basin is more serious than that in the Huaihe River Basin, presenting a decreasing trend from south to north. Conversely, the blue water footprint (WF_blue) of wheat exhibited an increasing trend from south to north. During the drought years of 2006, 2013, and 2014, more groundwater was extracted to offset the surface water shortage, leading to an accelerated decline in GWS. This study demonstrated that GWS depletion in the 3H Plain is well explained by reduced precipitation and groundwater abstraction due to anthropogenic irrigation activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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16 pages, 5455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High Precision Time Grating Displacement Sensor Based on Temporal and Spatial Modulation of Light-Field

by Min Fu, Changli Li, Ge Zhu, Hailin Shi and Fan Chen

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 921; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030921 - 09 Feb 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3395

Abstract

A new displacement sensor with light-field modulation, named as time grating, was proposed in this study. The purpose of this study was to reduce the reliance on high-precision measurements on high-precision manufacturing. The proposed sensor uses a light source to produce an alternative [...] Read more.

A new displacement sensor with light-field modulation, named as time grating, was proposed in this study. The purpose of this study was to reduce the reliance on high-precision measurements on high-precision manufacturing. The proposed sensor uses a light source to produce an alternative light-field simultaneously for four groups of sinusoidal light transmission surfaces. Using the four orthogonally alternative light-fields as the carrier to synthesize a traveling wave signal which makes the object movement in the spatial proportion to the signal phase shift in the time, the moving displacement of the object can be measured by counting time pulses. The influence of the light-field distribution on sensor measurement error was analyzed in detail. Aimed to reduce these influences, an optimization method that used continuous cosinusoidal light transmission surfaces with spatially symmetrical distribution was proposed, and the effectiveness of this method was verified with simulations and experiments. Experimental results demonstrated that the measurement accuracy reached 0.64 μm, within the range of 500 mm, with 0.6 mm pitch. Therefore, the light-field time grating can achieve high precision measurement with a low cost and submillimeter period sensing unit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)

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21 pages, 3440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aircraft Engine Prognostics Based on Informative Sensor Selection and Adaptive Degradation Modeling with Functional Principal Component Analysis

by Bin Zhang, Kai Zheng, Qingqing Huang, Song Feng, Shangqi Zhou and Yi Zhang

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 920; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030920 - 09 Feb 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8376

Abstract

Engine prognostics are critical to improve safety, reliability, and operational efficiency of an aircraft. With the development in sensor technology, multiple sensors are embedded or deployed to monitor the health condition of the aircraft engine. Thus, the challenge of engine prognostics lies in [...] Read more.

Engine prognostics are critical to improve safety, reliability, and operational efficiency of an aircraft. With the development in sensor technology, multiple sensors are embedded or deployed to monitor the health condition of the aircraft engine. Thus, the challenge of engine prognostics lies in how to model and predict future health by appropriate utilization of these sensor information. In this paper, a prognostic approach is developed based on informative sensor selection and adaptive degradation modeling with functional data analysis. The presented approach selects sensors based on metrics and constructs health index to characterize engine degradation by fusing the selected informative sensors. Next, the engine degradation is adaptively modeled with the functional principal component analysis (FPCA) method and future health is prognosticated using the Bayesian inference. The prognostic approach is applied to run-to-failure data sets of C-MAPSS test-bed developed by NASA. Results show that the proposed method can effectively select the informative sensors and accurately predict the complex degradation of the aircraft engine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Prognostics and Health Management)

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