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Sensors, Volume 16, Issue 3 (March 2016) – 152 articles

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1467 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Camera Arrays Applicable to the Internet of Things
by Jiachen Yang, Ru Xu, Zhihan Lv and Houbing Song
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030421 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5736
Abstract
The Internet of Things is built based on various sensors and networks. Sensors for stereo capture are essential for acquiring information and have been applied in different fields. In this paper, we focus on the camera modeling and analysis, which is very important [...] Read more.
The Internet of Things is built based on various sensors and networks. Sensors for stereo capture are essential for acquiring information and have been applied in different fields. In this paper, we focus on the camera modeling and analysis, which is very important for stereo display and helps with viewing. We model two kinds of cameras, a parallel and a converged one, and analyze the difference between them in vertical and horizontal parallax. Even though different kinds of camera arrays are used in various applications and analyzed in the research work, there are few discussions on the comparison of them. Therefore, we make a detailed analysis about their performance over different shooting distances. From our analysis, we find that the threshold of shooting distance for converged cameras is 7 m. In addition, we design a camera array in our work that can be used as a parallel camera array, as well as a converged camera array and take some images and videos with it to identify the threshold. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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2529 KiB  
Article
High-Order Interference Effect Introduced by Polarization Mode Coupling in Polarization—Maintaining Fiber and Its Identification
by Chuang Li, Jun Yang, Zhangjun Yu, Yonggui Yuan, Jianzhong Zhang, Bing Wu, Feng Peng and Libo Yuan
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030419 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5510
Abstract
The high-order interference (HOI)—The interferogram introduced by polarization mode couplings (PMC) of multiple perturbations—Will cause misjudgment of the realistic coupling points in polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF) which is tested with a white light interferometer (WLI) with large dynamic range. We present an optical path [...] Read more.
The high-order interference (HOI)—The interferogram introduced by polarization mode couplings (PMC) of multiple perturbations—Will cause misjudgment of the realistic coupling points in polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF) which is tested with a white light interferometer (WLI) with large dynamic range. We present an optical path tracking (OPT) method for simplifying the analysis of HOI, and demonstrate the enhancement and suppression conditions for the HOIs. A strategy is proposed to readily identify HOI by altering the spliced angle between polarizers’ pigtails and the PMF under test. Moreover, a PMF experiment with two perturbation points, for simplicity, is given as an example. As a result, all the characteristic interferograms including HOIs can be distinguished through just four measurements. Utilizing this identification method, we can estimate the realistic coupling points in PMFs and distinguish them from the interference signals including numerous HOIs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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2939 KiB  
Article
On-Demand Sensor Node Wake-Up Using Solar Panels and Visible Light Communication
by Carolina Carrascal, Ilker Demirkol and Josep Paradells
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 418; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030418 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9763
Abstract
To significantly reduce, or eliminate completely, the energy waste caused by the standby (idle) mode of wireless sensor nodes, we propose a novel on-demand wake-up system, which allows the nodes to be put into sleep mode unless their activation is truly necessary. Although [...] Read more.
To significantly reduce, or eliminate completely, the energy waste caused by the standby (idle) mode of wireless sensor nodes, we propose a novel on-demand wake-up system, which allows the nodes to be put into sleep mode unless their activation is truly necessary. Although there have been many studies proposing RF-based wake-up radio systems, in this work, we develop the first visible light communication (VLC)-based wake-up system. The developed system can extend the existing VLC systems and can be exploited to derive new application areas such as VLC tags. The system uses an off-the-shell indoor solar panel as receptor device of the wake-up signal as well as for energy harvesting purposes, through which it is able to harvest enough energy for its autonomous work. The design, implementation details and the experimental evaluation results are presented, which include flickering characterization and wake-up range evaluations. The results show that the developed system achieve reasonable wake-up distances for indoor environments, mainly where the use of VLC systems are considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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12938 KiB  
Article
SmartPort: A Platform for Sensor Data Monitoring in a Seaport Based on FIWARE
by Pablo Fernández, José Miguel Santana, Sebastián Ortega, Agustín Trujillo, José Pablo Suárez, Conrado Domínguez, Jaisiel Santana and Alejandro Sánchez
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030417 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 12952
Abstract
Seaport monitoring and management is a significant research area, in which infrastructure automatically collects big data sets that lead the organization in its multiple activities. Thus, this problem is heavily related to the fields of data acquisition, transfer, storage, big data analysis and [...] Read more.
Seaport monitoring and management is a significant research area, in which infrastructure automatically collects big data sets that lead the organization in its multiple activities. Thus, this problem is heavily related to the fields of data acquisition, transfer, storage, big data analysis and information visualization. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria port is a good example of how a seaport generates big data volumes through a network of sensors. They are placed on meteorological stations and maritime buoys, registering environmental parameters. Likewise, the Automatic Identification System (AIS) registers several dynamic parameters about the tracked vessels. However, such an amount of data is useless without a system that enables a meaningful visualization and helps make decisions. In this work, we present SmartPort, a platform that offers a distributed architecture for the collection of the port sensors’ data and a rich Internet application that allows the user to explore the geolocated data. The presented SmartPort tool is a representative, promising and inspiring approach to manage and develop a smart system. It covers a demanding need for big data analysis and visualization utilities for managing complex infrastructures, such as a seaport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Internet of Things (IoT) Networks)
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2769 KiB  
Article
Application of Thin ZnO ALD Layers in Fiber-Optic Fabry-Pérot Sensing Interferometers
by Daria Majchrowicz, Marzena Hirsch, Paweł Wierzba, Michael Bechelany, Roman Viter and Małgorzata Jędrzejewska‑Szczerska
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030416 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 8016
Abstract
In this paper we investigated the response of a fiber-optic Fabry-Pérot sensing interferometer with thin ZnO layers deposited on the end faces of the optical fibers forming the cavity. Standard telecommunication single-mode optical fiber (SMF-28) segments were used with the thin ZnO layers [...] Read more.
In this paper we investigated the response of a fiber-optic Fabry-Pérot sensing interferometer with thin ZnO layers deposited on the end faces of the optical fibers forming the cavity. Standard telecommunication single-mode optical fiber (SMF-28) segments were used with the thin ZnO layers deposited by Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD). Measurements were performed with the interferometer illuminated by two broadband sources operating at 1300 nm and 1550 nm. Reflected interference signal was acquired by an optical spectrum analyzer while the length of the air cavity was varied. Thickness of the ZnO layers used in the experiments was 50 nm, 100 nm, and 200 nm. Uncoated SMF-28 fiber was also used as a reference. Based on the results of measurements, the thickness of the ZnO layers and the length of the cavity were selected in order to achieve good visibility. Following, the interferometer was used to determine the refractive index of selected liquids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)
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844 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Anthropogenic Ocean Sound from Shipping Using an Acoustic Sensor Network and a Compressive Sensing Approach
by Peter Harris, Rachel Philip, Stephen Robinson and Lian Wang
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030415 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6934
Abstract
Monitoring ocean acoustic noise has been the subject of considerable recent study, motivated by the desire to assess the impact of anthropogenic noise on marine life. A combination of measuring ocean sound using an acoustic sensor network and modelling sources of sound and [...] Read more.
Monitoring ocean acoustic noise has been the subject of considerable recent study, motivated by the desire to assess the impact of anthropogenic noise on marine life. A combination of measuring ocean sound using an acoustic sensor network and modelling sources of sound and sound propagation has been proposed as an approach to estimating the acoustic noise map within a region of interest. However, strategies for developing a monitoring network are not well established. In this paper, considerations for designing a network are investigated using a simulated scenario based on the measurement of sound from ships in a shipping lane. Using models for the sources of the sound and for sound propagation, a noise map is calculated and measurements of the noise map by a sensor network within the region of interest are simulated. A compressive sensing algorithm, which exploits the sparsity of the representation of the noise map in terms of the sources, is used to estimate the locations and levels of the sources and thence the entire noise map within the region of interest. It is shown that although the spatial resolution to which the sound sources can be identified is generally limited, estimates of aggregated measures of the noise map can be obtained that are more reliable compared with those provided by other approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Sensor Nodes and Underwater Sensor Networks 2016)
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1064 KiB  
Article
A Survey on Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network Routing Protocols
by Ning Li, José-Fernán Martínez, Juan Manuel Meneses Chaus and Martina Eckert
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 414; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030414 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 169 | Viewed by 16573
Abstract
Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) have become more and more important in ocean exploration applications, such as ocean monitoring, pollution detection, ocean resource management, underwater device maintenance, etc. In underwater acoustic sensor networks, since the routing protocol guarantees reliable and effective data transmission [...] Read more.
Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) have become more and more important in ocean exploration applications, such as ocean monitoring, pollution detection, ocean resource management, underwater device maintenance, etc. In underwater acoustic sensor networks, since the routing protocol guarantees reliable and effective data transmission from the source node to the destination node, routing protocol design is an attractive topic for researchers. There are many routing algorithms have been proposed in recent years. To present the current state of development of UASN routing protocols, we review herein the UASN routing protocol designs reported in recent years. In this paper, all the routing protocols have been classified into different groups according to their characteristics and routing algorithms, such as the non-cross-layer design routing protocol, the traditional cross-layer design routing protocol, and the intelligent algorithm based routing protocol. This is also the first paper that introduces intelligent algorithm-based UASN routing protocols. In addition, in this paper, we investigate the development trends of UASN routing protocols, which can provide researchers with clear and direct insights for further research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Sensor Nodes and Underwater Sensor Networks 2016)
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12895 KiB  
Article
Classification of Hyperspectral or Trichromatic Measurements of Ocean Color Data into Spectral Classes
by Dilip K. Prasad and Krishna Agarwal
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030413 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5145
Abstract
We propose a method for classifying radiometric oceanic color data measured by hyperspectral satellite sensors into known spectral classes, irrespective of the downwelling irradiance of the particular day, i.e., the illumination conditions. The focus is not on retrieving the inherent optical properties [...] Read more.
We propose a method for classifying radiometric oceanic color data measured by hyperspectral satellite sensors into known spectral classes, irrespective of the downwelling irradiance of the particular day, i.e., the illumination conditions. The focus is not on retrieving the inherent optical properties but to classify the pixels according to the known spectral classes of the reflectances from the ocean. The method compensates for the unknown downwelling irradiance by white balancing the radiometric data at the ocean pixels using the radiometric data of bright pixels (typically from clouds). The white-balanced data is compared with the entries in a pre-calibrated lookup table in which each entry represents the spectral properties of one class. The proposed approach is tested on two datasets of in situ measurements and 26 different daylight illumination spectra for medium resolution imaging spectrometer (MERIS), moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS), sea-viewing wide field-of-view sensor (SeaWiFS), coastal zone color scanner (CZCS), ocean and land colour instrument (OLCI), and visible infrared imaging radiometer suite (VIIRS) sensors. Results are also shown for CIMEL’s SeaPRISM sun photometer sensor used on-board field trips. Accuracy of more than 92% is observed on the validation dataset and more than 86% is observed on the other dataset for all satellite sensors. The potential of applying the algorithms to non-satellite and non-multi-spectral sensors mountable on airborne systems is demonstrated by showing classification results for two consumer cameras. Classification on actual MERIS data is also shown. Additional results comparing the spectra of remote sensing reflectance with level 2 MERIS data and chlorophyll concentration estimates of the data are included. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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2339 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Computer Vision and Photogrammetric Approaches for Epipolar Resampling of Image Sequence
by Jae-In Kim and Taejung Kim
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030412 - 22 Mar 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6199
Abstract
Epipolar resampling is the procedure of eliminating vertical disparity between stereo images. Due to its importance, many methods have been developed in the computer vision and photogrammetry field. However, we argue that epipolar resampling of image sequences, instead of a single pair, has [...] Read more.
Epipolar resampling is the procedure of eliminating vertical disparity between stereo images. Due to its importance, many methods have been developed in the computer vision and photogrammetry field. However, we argue that epipolar resampling of image sequences, instead of a single pair, has not been studied thoroughly. In this paper, we compare epipolar resampling methods developed in both fields for handling image sequences. Firstly we briefly review the uncalibrated and calibrated epipolar resampling methods developed in computer vision and photogrammetric epipolar resampling methods. While it is well known that epipolar resampling methods developed in computer vision and in photogrammetry are mathematically identical, we also point out differences in parameter estimation between them. Secondly, we tested representative resampling methods in both fields and performed an analysis. We showed that for epipolar resampling of a single image pair all uncalibrated and photogrammetric methods tested could be used. More importantly, we also showed that, for image sequences, all methods tested, except the photogrammetric Bayesian method, showed significant variations in epipolar resampling performance. Our results indicate that the Bayesian method is favorable for epipolar resampling of image sequences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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1725 KiB  
Article
An Innovative Optical Sensor for the Online Monitoring and Control of Biomass Concentration in a Membrane Bioreactor System for Lactic Acid Production
by Rong Fan, Mehrdad Ebrahimi, Hendrich Quitmann, Matthias Aden and Peter Czermak
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030411 - 21 Mar 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7790
Abstract
Accurate real-time process control is necessary to increase process efficiency, and optical sensors offer a competitive solution because they provide diverse system information in a noninvasive manner. We used an innovative scattered light sensor for the online monitoring of biomass during lactic acid [...] Read more.
Accurate real-time process control is necessary to increase process efficiency, and optical sensors offer a competitive solution because they provide diverse system information in a noninvasive manner. We used an innovative scattered light sensor for the online monitoring of biomass during lactic acid production in a membrane bioreactor system because biomass determines productivity in this type of process. The upper limit of the measurement range in fermentation broth containing Bacillus coagulans was ~2.2 g·L−1. The specific cell growth rate (µ) during the exponential phase was calculated using data representing the linear range (cell density ≤ 0.5 g·L−1). The results were consistently and reproducibly more accurate than offline measurements of optical density and cell dry weight, because more data were gathered in real-time over a shorter duration. Furthermore, µmax was measured under different filtration conditions (transmembrane pressure 0.3–1.2 bar, crossflow velocity 0.5–1.5 m·s−1), showing that energy input had no significant impact on cell growth. Cell density was monitored using the sensor during filtration and was maintained at a constant level by feeding with glucose according to the fermentation kinetics. Our novel sensor is therefore suitable for integration into control strategies for continuous fermentation in membrane bioreactor systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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5752 KiB  
Article
A Crowd-Sourcing Indoor Localization Algorithm via Optical Camera on a Smartphone Assisted by Wi-Fi Fingerprint RSSI
by Wei Chen, Weiping Wang, Qun Li, Qiang Chang and Hongtao Hou
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030410 - 19 Mar 2016
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7542
Abstract
Indoor positioning based on existing Wi-Fi fingerprints is becoming more and more common. Unfortunately, the Wi-Fi fingerprint is susceptible to multiple path interferences, signal attenuation, and environmental changes, which leads to low accuracy. Meanwhile, with the recent advances in charge-coupled device (CCD) technologies [...] Read more.
Indoor positioning based on existing Wi-Fi fingerprints is becoming more and more common. Unfortunately, the Wi-Fi fingerprint is susceptible to multiple path interferences, signal attenuation, and environmental changes, which leads to low accuracy. Meanwhile, with the recent advances in charge-coupled device (CCD) technologies and the processing speed of smartphones, indoor positioning using the optical camera on a smartphone has become an attractive research topic; however, the major challenge is its high computational complexity; as a result, real-time positioning cannot be achieved. In this paper we introduce a crowd-sourcing indoor localization algorithm via an optical camera and orientation sensor on a smartphone to address these issues. First, we use Wi-Fi fingerprint based on the K Weighted Nearest Neighbor (KWNN) algorithm to make a coarse estimation. Second, we adopt a mean-weighted exponent algorithm to fuse optical image features and orientation sensor data as well as KWNN in the smartphone to refine the result. Furthermore, a crowd-sourcing approach is utilized to update and supplement the positioning database. We perform several experiments comparing our approach with other positioning algorithms on a common smartphone to evaluate the performance of the proposed sensor-calibrated algorithm, and the results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm could significantly improve accuracy, stability, and applicability of positioning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging: Sensors and Technologies)
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5457 KiB  
Article
Physiological Signal Monitoring Bed for Infants Based on Load-Cell Sensors
by Won Kyu Lee, Heenam Yoon, Chungmin Han, Kwang Min Joo and Kwang Suk Park
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030409 - 19 Mar 2016
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 10521
Abstract
Ballistocardiographs (BCGs), which record the mechanical activity of the heart, have been a subject of interest for several years because of their advantages in providing unobtrusive physiological measurements. BCGs could also be useful for monitoring the biological signals of infants without the need [...] Read more.
Ballistocardiographs (BCGs), which record the mechanical activity of the heart, have been a subject of interest for several years because of their advantages in providing unobtrusive physiological measurements. BCGs could also be useful for monitoring the biological signals of infants without the need for physical confinement. In this study, we describe a physiological signal monitoring bed based on load cells and assess an algorithm to extract the heart rate and breathing rate from the measured load-cell signals. Four infants participated in a total of 13 experiments. As a reference signal, electrocardiogram and respiration signals were simultaneously measured using a commercial device. The proposed automatic algorithm then selected the optimal sensor from which to estimate the heartbeat and respiration information. The results from the load-cell sensor signals were compared with those of the reference signals, and the heartbeat and respiration information were found to have average performance errors of 2.55% and 2.66%, respectively. The experimental results verify the positive feasibility of BCG-based measurements in infants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)
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2529 KiB  
Article
Fast Selective Detection of Pyocyanin Using Cyclic Voltammetry
by Fatima AlZahra’a Alatraktchi, Sandra Breum Andersen, Helle Krogh Johansen, Søren Molin and Winnie E. Svendsen
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030408 - 19 Mar 2016
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 9504
Abstract
Pyocyanin is a virulence factor uniquely produced by the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The fast and selective detection of pyocyanin in clinical samples can reveal important information about the presence of this microorganism in patients. Electrochemical sensing of the redox-active pyocyanin is a [...] Read more.
Pyocyanin is a virulence factor uniquely produced by the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The fast and selective detection of pyocyanin in clinical samples can reveal important information about the presence of this microorganism in patients. Electrochemical sensing of the redox-active pyocyanin is a route to directly quantify pyocyanin in real time and in situ in hospitals and clinics. The selective quantification of pyocyanin is, however, limited by other redox-active compounds existing in human fluids and by other metabolites produced by pathogenic bacteria. Here we present a direct selective method to detect pyocyanin in a complex electroactive environment using commercially available electrodes. It is shown that cyclic voltammetry measurements between −1.0 V to 1.0 V reveal a potential detection window of pyocyanin of 0.58–0.82 V that is unaffected by other redox-active interferents. The linear quantification of pyocyanin has an R2 value of 0.991 across the clinically relevant concentration range of 2–100 µM. The proposed method was tested on human saliva showing a standard deviation of 2.5% ± 1% (n = 5) from the known added pyocyanin concentration to the samples. This inexpensive procedure is suggested for clinical use in monitoring the presence and state of P. aeruginosa infection in patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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4431 KiB  
Article
Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of an Induction Planar Actuator with Different Secondaries—A Planar Driver Application for Metallic Surface Inspection
by Felipe Treviso, Marilia A. Silveira, Aly F. Flores Filho and David G. Dorrell
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030407 - 19 Mar 2016
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5388
Abstract
This paper presents a study on an induction planar actuator concept. The device uses the same principles as a linear induction motor in which the interaction between a travelling magnetic field and a conducting surface produces eddy currents that leads to the generation [...] Read more.
This paper presents a study on an induction planar actuator concept. The device uses the same principles as a linear induction motor in which the interaction between a travelling magnetic field and a conducting surface produces eddy currents that leads to the generation of a thrust force and can result in movement over a metallic surface. This can benefit the inspection of metallic surfaces based on the driving platform provided by the induction planar actuator. Equations of the magnetic and electric fields are presented and, by means of these equations, the forces involved were calculated. The behaviour of thrust and normal forces was analysed through the equations and by numerical models, and compared with the results obtained by measurements on a device prototype built in the laboratory as part of the study. With relation to the surface under inspection that forms the secondary, three cases were analysed: (1) a double-layered secondary formed by aluminium and ferromagnetic slabs; (2) a single aluminium layer and (3) a single ferromagnetic layer. Theoretical and measured values of thrust and normal forces showed good correlation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Components of Mechatronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) – Modeling and Design)
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1825 KiB  
Article
Designing Mobile Applications for Emergency Response: Citizens Acting as Human Sensors
by Marco Romano, Teresa Onorati, Ignacio Aedo and Paloma Diaz
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030406 - 19 Mar 2016
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9971
Abstract
When an emergency occurs, citizens can be a helpful support for the operation centers involved in the response activities. As witnesses to a crisis, they initially can share updated and detailed information about what is going on. Moreover, thanks to the current technological [...] Read more.
When an emergency occurs, citizens can be a helpful support for the operation centers involved in the response activities. As witnesses to a crisis, they initially can share updated and detailed information about what is going on. Moreover, thanks to the current technological evolution people are able to quickly and easily gather rich information and transmit it through different communication channels. Indeed, modern mobile devices embed several sensors such as GPS receivers, Wi-Fi, accelerometers or cameras that can transform users into well-equipped human sensors. For these reasons, emergency organizations and small and medium enterprises have demonstrated a growing interest in developing smart applications for reporting any exceptional circumstances. In this paper, we present a practical study about this kind of applications for identifying both limitations and common features. Based on a study of relevant existent contributions in this area and our personal direct experience in developing and evaluating emergency management solutions, our aim is to propose several findings about how to design effective and efficient mobile emergency notification applications. For this purpose we have exploited the basic sensors of modern mobile devices and the users’ aptitude for using them. The evaluation consists of a practical and a theoretical part. In the practical part, we have simulated a traffic accident as closely as possible to a real scenario, with a victim lying on the ground near a car in the middle of a street. For the theoretical part, we have interviewed some emergency experts for collecting their opinions about the utility of the proposed solution. Results from this evaluation phase confirm the positive impact that EN application have for both operators’ and citizens’ perspective. Moreover, we collected several findings useful for future design challenges in the same area, as shown in the final redesign of the proposed application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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7767 KiB  
Article
Development of a Tri-Axial Cutting Force Sensor for the Milling Process
by Yingxue Li, Yulong Zhao, Jiyou Fei, You Zhao, Xiuyuan Li and Yunxiang Gao
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030405 - 19 Mar 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6523
Abstract
This paper presents a three-component fixed dynamometer based on a strain gauge, which reduces output errors produced by the cutting force imposed on different milling positions of the workpiece. A reformative structure of tri-layer cross beams is proposed, sensitive areas were selected, and [...] Read more.
This paper presents a three-component fixed dynamometer based on a strain gauge, which reduces output errors produced by the cutting force imposed on different milling positions of the workpiece. A reformative structure of tri-layer cross beams is proposed, sensitive areas were selected, and corresponding measuring circuits were arranged to decrease the inaccuracy brought about by positional variation. To simulate the situation with a milling cutter moving on the workpiece and validate the function of reducing the output errors when the milling position changes, both static calibration and dynamic milling tests were implemented on different parts of the workpiece. Static experiment results indicate that with standard loads imposed, the maximal deviation between the measured forces and the standard inputs is 4.87%. The results of the dynamic milling test illustrate that with identical machining parameters, the differences in output variation between the developed sensor and standard dynamometer are no larger than 6.61%. Both static and dynamic experimental results demonstrate that the developed dynamometer is suitable for measuring milling force imposed on different positions of the workpiece, which shows potential applicability in machining a monitoring system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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684 KiB  
Article
Efficient Data Gathering in 3D Linear Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks Using Sink Mobility
by Mariam Akbar, Nadeem Javaid, Ayesha Hussain Khan, Muhammad Imran, Muhammad Shoaib and Athanasios Vasilakos
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030404 - 19 Mar 2016
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 7868
Abstract
Due to the unpleasant and unpredictable underwater environment, designing an energy-efficient routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) demands more accuracy and extra computations. In the proposed scheme, we introduce a mobile sink (MS), i.e., an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), and [...] Read more.
Due to the unpleasant and unpredictable underwater environment, designing an energy-efficient routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) demands more accuracy and extra computations. In the proposed scheme, we introduce a mobile sink (MS), i.e., an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), and also courier nodes (CNs), to minimize the energy consumption of nodes. MS and CNs stop at specific stops for data gathering; later on, CNs forward the received data to the MS for further transmission. By the mobility of CNs and MS, the overall energy consumption of nodes is minimized. We perform simulations to investigate the performance of the proposed scheme and compare it to preexisting techniques. Simulation results are compared in terms of network lifetime, throughput, path loss, transmission loss and packet drop ratio. The results show that the proposed technique performs better in terms of network lifetime, throughput, path loss and scalability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobile Sensor Computing: Theory and Applications)
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3495 KiB  
Article
Next Generation Air Quality Platform: Openness and Interoperability for the Internet of Things
by Alexander Kotsev, Sven Schade, Massimo Craglia, Michel Gerboles, Laurent Spinelle and Marco Signorini
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030403 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 12654
Abstract
The widespread diffusion of sensors, mobile devices, social media and open data are reconfiguring the way data underpinning policy and science are being produced and consumed. This in turn is creating both opportunities and challenges for policy-making and science. There can be major [...] Read more.
The widespread diffusion of sensors, mobile devices, social media and open data are reconfiguring the way data underpinning policy and science are being produced and consumed. This in turn is creating both opportunities and challenges for policy-making and science. There can be major benefits from the deployment of the IoT in smart cities and environmental monitoring, but to realize such benefits, and reduce potential risks, there is an urgent need to address current limitations, including the interoperability of sensors, data quality, security of access and new methods for spatio-temporal analysis. Within this context, the manuscript provides an overview of the AirSensEUR project, which establishes an affordable open software/hardware multi-sensor platform, which is nonetheless able to monitor air pollution at low concentration levels. AirSensEUR is described from the perspective of interoperable data management with emphasis on possible use case scenarios, where reliable and timely air quality data would be essential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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8238 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Human Body Modeling Using a Single RGB Camera
by Haiyu Zhu, Yao Yu, Yu Zhou and Sidan Du
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 402; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030402 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 9416
Abstract
In this paper, we present a novel automatic pipeline to build personalized parametric models of dynamic people using a single RGB camera. Compared to previous approaches that use monocular RGB images, our system can model a 3D human body automatically and incrementally, taking [...] Read more.
In this paper, we present a novel automatic pipeline to build personalized parametric models of dynamic people using a single RGB camera. Compared to previous approaches that use monocular RGB images, our system can model a 3D human body automatically and incrementally, taking advantage of human motion. Based on coarse 2D and 3D poses estimated from image sequences, we first perform a kinematic classification of human body parts to refine the poses and obtain reconstructed body parts. Next, a personalized parametric human model is generated by driving a general template to fit the body parts and calculating the non-rigid deformation. Experimental results show that our shape estimation method achieves comparable accuracy with reconstructed models using depth cameras, yet requires neither user interaction nor any dedicated devices, leading to the feasibility of using this method on widely available smart phones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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3832 KiB  
Article
A Priority-Based Adaptive MAC Protocol for Wireless Body Area Networks
by Sabin Bhandari and Sangman Moh
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030401 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 86 | Viewed by 8185
Abstract
In wireless body area networks (WBANs), various sensors and actuators are placed on/inside the human body and connected wirelessly. WBANs have specific requirements for healthcare and medical applications, hence, standard protocols like the IEEE 802.15.4 cannot fulfill all the requirements. Consequently, many medium [...] Read more.
In wireless body area networks (WBANs), various sensors and actuators are placed on/inside the human body and connected wirelessly. WBANs have specific requirements for healthcare and medical applications, hence, standard protocols like the IEEE 802.15.4 cannot fulfill all the requirements. Consequently, many medium access control (MAC) protocols, mostly derived from the IEEE 802.15.4 superframe structure, have been studied. Nevertheless, they do not support a differentiated quality of service (QoS) for the various forms of traffic coexisting in a WBAN. In particular, a QoS-aware MAC protocol is essential for WBANs operating in the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands, because different wireless services like Bluetooth, WiFi, and Zigbee may coexist there and cause severe interference. In this paper, we propose a priority-based adaptive MAC (PA-MAC) protocol for WBANs in unlicensed bands, which allocates time slots dynamically, based on the traffic priority. Further, multiple channels are effectively utilized to reduce access delays in a WBAN, in the presence of coexisting systems. Our performance evaluation results show that the proposed PA-MAC outperforms the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC and the conventional priority-based MAC in terms of the average transmission time, throughput, energy consumption, and data collision ratio. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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4608 KiB  
Article
Self-Sensing of Damage Progression in Unidirectional Multiscale Hierarchical Composites Subjected to Cyclic Tensile Loading
by J. J. Ku-Herrera, O. F. Pacheco-Salazar, C. R. Ríos-Soberanis, G. Domínguez-Rodríguez and F. Avilés
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030400 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6630
Abstract
The electrical sensitivity of glass fiber/multiwall carbon nanotube/vinyl ester hierarchical composites containing a tailored electrically-percolated network to self-sense accumulation of structural damage when subjected to cyclic tensile loading-unloading is investigated. The hierarchical composites were designed to contain two architectures differentiated by the location [...] Read more.
The electrical sensitivity of glass fiber/multiwall carbon nanotube/vinyl ester hierarchical composites containing a tailored electrically-percolated network to self-sense accumulation of structural damage when subjected to cyclic tensile loading-unloading is investigated. The hierarchical composites were designed to contain two architectures differentiated by the location of the multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), viz. MWCNTs deposited on the fibers and MWCNTs dispersed within the matrix. The changes in electrical resistance of the hierarchical composites are associated to their structural damage and correlated to acoustic emissions. The results show that such tailored hierarchical composites are able to self-sense damage onset and accumulation upon tensile loading-unloading cycles by means of their electrical response, and that the electrical response depends on the MWCNT location. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Structural Health Monitoring in Polymeric Composites)
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1576 KiB  
Article
A Micro Aerosol Sensor for the Measurement of Airborne Ultrafine Particles
by Chao Zhang, Rong Zhu and Wenming Yang
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030399 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8448
Abstract
Particle number concentration and particle size are the two key parameters used to characterize exposure to airborne nanoparticles or ultrafine particles that have attracted the most attention. This paper proposes a simple micro aerosol sensor for detecting the number concentration and particle size [...] Read more.
Particle number concentration and particle size are the two key parameters used to characterize exposure to airborne nanoparticles or ultrafine particles that have attracted the most attention. This paper proposes a simple micro aerosol sensor for detecting the number concentration and particle size of ultrafine particles with diameters from 50 to 253 nm based on electrical diffusion charging. The sensor is composed of a micro channel and a couple of planar electrodes printed on two circuit boards assembled in parallel, which thus integrate charging, precipitating and measurement elements into one chip, the overall size of which is 98 × 38 × 25 mm3. The experiment results demonstrate that the sensor is useful for measuring monodisperse aerosol particles with number concentrations from 300 to 2.5 × 104 /cm3 and particle sizes from 50 to 253 nm. The aerosol sensor has a simple structure and small size, which is favorable for use in handheld devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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2341 KiB  
Article
An Inexpensive, Stable, and Accurate Relative Humidity Measurement Method for Challenging Environments
by Wei Zhang, Hong Ma and Simon X. Yang
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030398 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6641
Abstract
In this research, an improved psychrometer is developed to solve practical issues arising in the relative humidity measurement of challenging drying environments for meat manufacturing in agricultural and agri-food industries. The design in this research focused on the structure of the improved psychrometer, [...] Read more.
In this research, an improved psychrometer is developed to solve practical issues arising in the relative humidity measurement of challenging drying environments for meat manufacturing in agricultural and agri-food industries. The design in this research focused on the structure of the improved psychrometer, signal conversion, and calculation methods. The experimental results showed the effect of varying psychrometer structure on relative humidity measurement accuracy. An industrial application to dry-cured meat products demonstrated the effective performance of the improved psychrometer being used as a relative humidity measurement sensor in meat-drying rooms. In a drying environment for meat manufacturing, the achieved measurement accuracy for relative humidity using the improved psychrometer was ±0.6%. The system test results showed that the improved psychrometer can provide reliable and long-term stable relative humidity measurements with high accuracy in the drying system of meat products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Agriculture)
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2743 KiB  
Article
Employing an Incentive Spirometer to Calibrate Tidal Volumes Estimated from a Smartphone Camera
by Bersain A. Reyes, Natasa Reljin, Youngsun Kong, Yunyoung Nam, Sangho Ha and Ki H. Chon
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030397 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 12299
Abstract
A smartphone-based tidal volume (VT) estimator was recently introduced by our research group, where an Android application provides a chest movement signal whose peak-to-peak amplitude is highly correlated with reference VT measured by a spirometer. We found a Normalized Root [...] Read more.
A smartphone-based tidal volume (VT) estimator was recently introduced by our research group, where an Android application provides a chest movement signal whose peak-to-peak amplitude is highly correlated with reference VT measured by a spirometer. We found a Normalized Root Mean Squared Error (NRMSE) of 14.998% ± 5.171% (mean ± SD) when the smartphone measures were calibrated using spirometer data. However, the availability of a spirometer device for calibration is not realistic outside clinical or research environments. In order to be used by the general population on a daily basis, a simple calibration procedure not relying on specialized devices is required. In this study, we propose taking advantage of the linear correlation between smartphone measurements and VT to obtain a calibration model using information computed while the subject breathes through a commercially-available incentive spirometer (IS). Experiments were performed on twelve (N = 12) healthy subjects. In addition to corroborating findings from our previous study using a spirometer for calibration, we found that the calibration procedure using an IS resulted in a fixed bias of −0.051 L and a RMSE of 0.189 ± 0.074 L corresponding to 18.559% ± 6.579% when normalized. Although it has a small underestimation and slightly increased error, the proposed calibration procedure using an IS has the advantages of being simple, fast, and affordable. This study supports the feasibility of developing a portable smartphone-based breathing status monitor that provides information about breathing depth, in addition to the more commonly estimated respiratory rate, on a daily basis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartphone-Based Sensors for Non-Invasive Physiological Monitoring)
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3590 KiB  
Article
A Novel Robust H∞ Filter Based on Krein Space Theory in the SINS/CNS Attitude Reference System
by Fei Yu, Chongyang Lv and Qianhui Dong
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030396 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4872
Abstract
Owing to their numerous merits, such as compact, autonomous and independence, the strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) and celestial navigation system (CNS) can be used in marine applications. What is more, due to the complementary navigation information obtained from two different kinds of [...] Read more.
Owing to their numerous merits, such as compact, autonomous and independence, the strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) and celestial navigation system (CNS) can be used in marine applications. What is more, due to the complementary navigation information obtained from two different kinds of sensors, the accuracy of the SINS/CNS integrated navigation system can be enhanced availably. Thus, the SINS/CNS system is widely used in the marine navigation field. However, the CNS is easily interfered with by the surroundings, which will lead to the output being discontinuous. Thus, the uncertainty problem caused by the lost measurement will reduce the system accuracy. In this paper, a robust H∞ filter based on the Krein space theory is proposed. The Krein space theory is introduced firstly, and then, the linear state and observation models of the SINS/CNS integrated navigation system are established reasonably. By taking the uncertainty problem into account, in this paper, a new robust H∞ filter is proposed to improve the robustness of the integrated system. At last, this new robust filter based on the Krein space theory is estimated by numerical simulations and actual experiments. Additionally, the simulation and experiment results and analysis show that the attitude errors can be reduced by utilizing the proposed robust filter effectively when the measurements are missing discontinuous. Compared to the traditional Kalman filter (KF) method, the accuracy of the SINS/CNS integrated system is improved, verifying the robustness and the availability of the proposed robust H∞ filter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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7118 KiB  
Article
Fusion of Haptic and Gesture Sensors for Rehabilitation of Bimanual Coordination and Dexterous Manipulation
by Ningbo Yu, Chang Xu, Huanshuai Li, Kui Wang, Liancheng Wang and Jingtai Liu
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030395 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8320
Abstract
Disabilities after neural injury, such as stroke, bring tremendous burden to patients, families and society. Besides the conventional constrained-induced training with a paretic arm, bilateral rehabilitation training involves both the ipsilateral and contralateral sides of the neural injury, fitting well with the fact [...] Read more.
Disabilities after neural injury, such as stroke, bring tremendous burden to patients, families and society. Besides the conventional constrained-induced training with a paretic arm, bilateral rehabilitation training involves both the ipsilateral and contralateral sides of the neural injury, fitting well with the fact that both arms are needed in common activities of daily living (ADLs), and can promote good functional recovery. In this work, the fusion of a gesture sensor and a haptic sensor with force feedback capabilities has enabled a bilateral rehabilitation training therapy. The Leap Motion gesture sensor detects the motion of the healthy hand, and the omega.7 device can detect and assist the paretic hand, according to the designed cooperative task paradigm, as much as needed, with active force feedback to accomplish the manipulation task. A virtual scenario has been built up, and the motion and force data facilitate instantaneous visual and audio feedback, as well as further analysis of the functional capabilities of the patient. This task-oriented bimanual training paradigm recruits the sensory, motor and cognitive aspects of the patient into one loop, encourages the active involvement of the patients into rehabilitation training, strengthens the cooperation of both the healthy and impaired hands, challenges the dexterous manipulation capability of the paretic hand, suits easy of use at home or centralized institutions and, thus, promises effective potentials for rehabilitation training. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Robots)
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7622 KiB  
Article
Haptic, Virtual Interaction and Motor Imagery: Entertainment Tools and Psychophysiological Testing
by Sara Invitto, Chiara Faggiano, Silvia Sammarco, Valerio De Luca and Lucio T. De Paolis
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030394 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7449
Abstract
In this work, the perception of affordances was analysed in terms of cognitive neuroscience during an interactive experience in a virtual reality environment. In particular, we chose a virtual reality scenario based on the Leap Motion controller: this sensor device captures the movements [...] Read more.
In this work, the perception of affordances was analysed in terms of cognitive neuroscience during an interactive experience in a virtual reality environment. In particular, we chose a virtual reality scenario based on the Leap Motion controller: this sensor device captures the movements of the user’s hand and fingers, which are reproduced on a computer screen by the proper software applications. For our experiment, we employed a sample of 10 subjects matched by age and sex and chosen among university students. The subjects took part in motor imagery training and immersive affordance condition (a virtual training with Leap Motion and a haptic training with real objects). After each training sessions the subject performed a recognition task, in order to investigate event-related potential (ERP) components. The results revealed significant differences in the attentional components during the Leap Motion training. During Leap Motion session, latencies increased in the occipital lobes, which are entrusted to visual sensory; in contrast, latencies decreased in the frontal lobe, where the brain is mainly activated for attention and action planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Entertainment)
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531 KiB  
Review
Adaptive Transcutaneous Power Transfer to Implantable Devices: A State of the Art Review
by Kara N. Bocan and Ervin Sejdić
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030393 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 95 | Viewed by 8899
Abstract
Wireless energy transfer is a broad research area that has recently become applicable to implantable medical devices. Wireless powering of and communication with implanted devices is possible through wireless transcutaneous energy transfer. However, designing wireless transcutaneous systems is complicated due to the variability [...] Read more.
Wireless energy transfer is a broad research area that has recently become applicable to implantable medical devices. Wireless powering of and communication with implanted devices is possible through wireless transcutaneous energy transfer. However, designing wireless transcutaneous systems is complicated due to the variability of the environment. The focus of this review is on strategies to sense and adapt to environmental variations in wireless transcutaneous systems. Adaptive systems provide the ability to maintain performance in the face of both unpredictability (variation from expected parameters) and variability (changes over time). Current strategies in adaptive (or tunable) systems include sensing relevant metrics to evaluate the function of the system in its environment and adjusting control parameters according to sensed values through the use of tunable components. Some challenges of applying adaptive designs to implantable devices are challenges common to all implantable devices, including size and power reduction on the implant, efficiency of power transfer and safety related to energy absorption in tissue. Challenges specifically associated with adaptation include choosing relevant and accessible parameters to sense and adjust, minimizing the tuning time and complexity of control, utilizing feedback from the implanted device and coordinating adaptation at the transmitter and receiver. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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4478 KiB  
Article
Scene-Level Geographic Image Classification Based on a Covariance Descriptor Using Supervised Collaborative Kernel Coding
by Chunwei Yang, Huaping Liu, Shicheng Wang and Shouyi Liao
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030392 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4283
Abstract
Scene-level geographic image classification has been a very challenging problem and has become a research focus in recent years. This paper develops a supervised collaborative kernel coding method based on a covariance descriptor (covd) for scene-level geographic image classification. First, covd is introduced [...] Read more.
Scene-level geographic image classification has been a very challenging problem and has become a research focus in recent years. This paper develops a supervised collaborative kernel coding method based on a covariance descriptor (covd) for scene-level geographic image classification. First, covd is introduced in the feature extraction process and, then, is transformed to a Euclidean feature by a supervised collaborative kernel coding model. Furthermore, we develop an iterative optimization framework to solve this model. Comprehensive evaluations on public high-resolution aerial image dataset and comparisons with state-of-the-art methods show the superiority and effectiveness of our approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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1559 KiB  
Article
The Impacts of Attitudes and Engagement on Electronic Word of Mouth (eWOM) of Mobile Sensor Computing Applications
by Yu Zhao, Yide Liu, Ivan K. W. Lai, Hongfeng Zhang and Yi Zhang
Sensors 2016, 16(3), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16030391 - 18 Mar 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7502
Abstract
As one of the latest revolutions in networking technology, social networks allow users to keep connected and exchange information. Driven by the rapid wireless technology development and diffusion of mobile devices, social networks experienced a tremendous change based on mobile sensor computing. More [...] Read more.
As one of the latest revolutions in networking technology, social networks allow users to keep connected and exchange information. Driven by the rapid wireless technology development and diffusion of mobile devices, social networks experienced a tremendous change based on mobile sensor computing. More and more mobile sensor network applications have appeared with the emergence of a huge amount of users. Therefore, an in-depth discussion on the human–computer interaction (HCI) issues of mobile sensor computing is required. The target of this study is to extend the discussions on HCI by examining the relationships of users’ compound attitudes (i.e., affective attitudes, cognitive attitude), engagement and electronic word of mouth (eWOM) behaviors in the context of mobile sensor computing. A conceptual model is developed, based on which, 313 valid questionnaires are collected. The research discusses the level of impact on the eWOM of mobile sensor computing by considering user-technology issues, including the compound attitude and engagement, which can bring valuable discussions on the HCI of mobile sensor computing in further study. Besides, we find that user engagement plays a mediating role between the user’s compound attitudes and eWOM. The research result can also help the mobile sensor computing industry to develop effective strategies and build strong consumer user—product (brand) relationships. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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