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Entropy, Volume 24, Issue 9 (September 2022) – 150 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): It is often claimed that the entropy of a network's degree distribution is a proxy for its robustness. We provide a thorough examination of the relationship between degree entropies and network robustness, finding that network heterogeneity as measured by degree distribution entropy guarantees a minimum level of robustness. Additionally, we determine that the remaining degree entropy, H(q), correlates monotonically with robustness among networks with a fixed expected degree. We establish that remaining degree entropy is a more informative measure of robustness than degree distribution entropy and conclude that edge heterogeneity is more important to robustness than node heterogeneity. View this paper
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37 pages, 1158 KiB  
Article
The Double-Sided Information Bottleneck Function
by Michael Dikshtein, Or Ordentlich and Shlomo Shamai (Shitz)
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1321; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091321 - 19 Sep 2022
Viewed by 2002
Abstract
A double-sided variant of the information bottleneck method is considered. Let (X,Y) be a bivariate source characterized by a joint pmf PXY. The problem is to find two independent channels PU|X and [...] Read more.
A double-sided variant of the information bottleneck method is considered. Let (X,Y) be a bivariate source characterized by a joint pmf PXY. The problem is to find two independent channels PU|X and PV|Y (setting the Markovian structure UXYV), that maximize I(U;V) subject to constraints on the relevant mutual information expressions: I(U;X) and I(V;Y). For jointly Gaussian X and Y, we show that Gaussian channels are optimal in the low-SNR regime but not for general SNR. Similarly, it is shown that for a doubly symmetric binary source, binary symmetric channels are optimal when the correlation is low and are suboptimal for high correlations. We conjecture that Z and S channels are optimal when the correlation is 1 (i.e., X=Y) and provide supporting numerical evidence. Furthermore, we present a Blahut–Arimoto type alternating maximization algorithm and demonstrate its performance for a representative setting. This problem is closely related to the domain of biclustering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theory and Application of the Information Bottleneck Method)
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15 pages, 3598 KiB  
Article
Opinion Polarization in Human Communities Can Emerge as a Natural Consequence of Beliefs Being Interrelated
by Anna Zafeiris
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1320; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091320 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2010
Abstract
The emergence of opinion polarization within human communities—the phenomenon that individuals within a society tend to develop conflicting attitudes related to the greatest diversity of topics—has been a focus of interest for decades, both from theoretical and modelling points of view. Regarding modelling [...] Read more.
The emergence of opinion polarization within human communities—the phenomenon that individuals within a society tend to develop conflicting attitudes related to the greatest diversity of topics—has been a focus of interest for decades, both from theoretical and modelling points of view. Regarding modelling attempts, an entire scientific field—opinion dynamics—has emerged in order to study this and related phenomena. Within this framework, agents’ opinions are usually represented by a scalar value which undergoes modification due to interaction with other agents. Under certain conditions, these models are able to reproduce polarization—a state increasingly familiar to our everyday experience. In the present paper, an alternative explanation is suggested along with its corresponding model. More specifically, we demonstrate that by incorporating the following two well-known human characteristics into the representation of agents: (1) in the human brain beliefs are interconnected, and (2) people strive to maintain a coherent belief system; polarization immediately occurs under exposure to news and information. Furthermore, the model accounts for the proliferation of fake news, and shows how opinion polarization is related to various cognitive biases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Statistical Physics of Opinion Formation and Social Phenomena)
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18 pages, 7682 KiB  
Article
An Efficient Retrieval System Framework for Fabrics Based on Fine-Grained Similarity
by Jun Xiang, Ruru Pan and Weidong Gao
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1319; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091319 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1557
Abstract
In the context of “double carbon”, as a traditional high energy consumption industry, the textile industry is facing the severe challenges of energy saving and emission reduction. To improve production efficiency in the textile industry, we propose the use of content-based image retrieval [...] Read more.
In the context of “double carbon”, as a traditional high energy consumption industry, the textile industry is facing the severe challenges of energy saving and emission reduction. To improve production efficiency in the textile industry, we propose the use of content-based image retrieval technology to shorten the fabric production cycle. However, fabric retrieval has high requirements for results, which makes it difficult for common retrieval methods to be directly applied to fabric retrieval. This paper presents a novel method for fabric image retrieval. Firstly, we define a fine-grained similarity to measure the similarity between two fabric images. Then, a convolutional neural network with a compact structure and cross-domain connections is designed to narrow the gap between fabric images and similarities. To overcome the problems of probabilistic missing and difficult training in classical hashing, we introduce a variational network module and structural module into the hashing model, which is called DVSH. We employ list-wise learning to perform similarity embedding. The experimental results demonstrate the superiority and efficiency of the proposed hashing model, DVSH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Applications in Image Analysis and Pattern Recognition)
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21 pages, 4414 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study of the Influence of Different Load Changes in Inlet Gas and Solvent Flow Rate on CO2 Absorption in a Sieve Tray Column
by Adel Almoslh, Babak Aghel, Falah Alobaid, Christian Heinze and Bernd Epple
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1318; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091318 - 19 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1328
Abstract
An experimental study was conducted in a sieve tray column. This study used a simulated flue gas consisting of 30% CO2 and 70%. A 10% mass fraction of methyl diethanolamine (MDEA) aqueous solution was used as a solvent. Three ramp-up tests were [...] Read more.
An experimental study was conducted in a sieve tray column. This study used a simulated flue gas consisting of 30% CO2 and 70%. A 10% mass fraction of methyl diethanolamine (MDEA) aqueous solution was used as a solvent. Three ramp-up tests were performed to investigate the effect of different load changes in inlet gas and solvent flow rate on CO2 absorption. The rate of change in gas flow rate was 0.1 Nm3/h/s, and the rate of change in MDEA aqueous solution was about 0.7 NL/h/s. It was found that different load changes in inlet gas and solvent flow rate significantly affect the CO2 volume fraction at the outlet during the transient state. The CO2 volume fraction reaches a peak value during the transient state. The effect of different load changes in inlet gas and solvent flow rate on the hydrodynamic properties of the sieve tray were also investigated. The authors studied the correlation between the performance of the absorber column for CO2 capture during the transient state and the hydrodynamic properties of the sieve tray. In addition, this paper presents an experimental investigation of the bubble-liquid interaction as a contributor to entropy generation on a sieve tray in the absorption column used for CO2 absorption during the transient state of different load changes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Entropy Generation Analysis in Near-Wall Turbulent Flow)
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28 pages, 1781 KiB  
Article
The Cryptocurrency Market in Transition before and after COVID-19: An Opportunity for Investors?
by An Pham Ngoc Nguyen, Tai Tan Mai, Marija Bezbradica and Martin Crane
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1317; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091317 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3297
Abstract
We analyze the correlation between different assets in the cryptocurrency market throughout different phases, specifically bearish and bullish periods. Taking advantage of a fine-grained dataset comprising 34 historical cryptocurrency price time series collected tick-by-tick on the HitBTC exchange, we observe the changes in [...] Read more.
We analyze the correlation between different assets in the cryptocurrency market throughout different phases, specifically bearish and bullish periods. Taking advantage of a fine-grained dataset comprising 34 historical cryptocurrency price time series collected tick-by-tick on the HitBTC exchange, we observe the changes in interactions among these cryptocurrencies from two aspects: time and level of granularity. Moreover, the investment decisions of investors during turbulent times caused by the COVID-19 pandemic are assessed by looking at the cryptocurrency community structure using various community detection algorithms. We found that finer-grain time series describes clearer the correlations between cryptocurrencies. Notably, a noise and trend removal scheme is applied to the original correlations thanks to the theory of random matrices and the concept of Market Component, which has never been considered in existing studies in quantitative finance. To this end, we recognized that investment decisions of cryptocurrency traders vary between bearish and bullish markets. The results of our work can help scholars, especially investors, better understand the operation of the cryptocurrency market, thereby building up an appropriate investment strategy suitable to the prevailing certain economic situation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Signatures of Maturity in Cryptocurrency Market)
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21 pages, 6598 KiB  
Article
Global Warming by Geothermal Heat from Fracking: Energy Industry’s Enthalpy Footprints
by Leslie V. Woodcock
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1316; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091316 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2522
Abstract
Hypothetical dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) air expansion processes in atmosphere climate models that predict global warming cannot be the causal explanation of the experimentally observed mean lapse rate (approx.−6.5 K/km) in the troposphere. The DALR hypothesis violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics. [...] Read more.
Hypothetical dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) air expansion processes in atmosphere climate models that predict global warming cannot be the causal explanation of the experimentally observed mean lapse rate (approx.−6.5 K/km) in the troposphere. The DALR hypothesis violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics. A corollary of the heat balance revision of climate model predictions is that increasing the atmospheric concentration of a weak molecular transducer, CO2, could only have a net cooling effect, if any, on the biosphere interface temperatures between the lithosphere and atmosphere. The greenhouse-gas hypothesis, moreover, does not withstand scientific scrutiny against the experimental data. The global map of temperature difference contours is heterogeneous with various hotspots localized within specific land areas. There are regional patches of significant increases in time-average temperature differences, (∆<T>) = 3 K+, in a ring around the arctic circle, with similar hotspots in Brazil, South Africa and Madagascar, a 2–3 K band across central Australia, SE Europe centred in Poland, southern China and the Philippines. These global-warming map hotspots coincide with the locations of the most intensive fracking operational regions of the shale gas industry. Regional global warming is caused by an increase in geothermal conductivity following hydraulic fracture operations. The mean lapse rate (d<T>/dz)z at the surface of the lithosphere will decrease slightly in the regions where these operations have enhanced heat transfer. Geothermal heat from induced seismic activity has caused an irreversible increase in enthalpy (H) input into the overall energy balance at these locations. Investigating global warming further, we report the energy industry’s enthalpy outputs from the heat generated by all fuel consumption. We also calculate a global electricity usage enthalpy output. The global warming index, <∆T-biosphere> since 1950, presently +0.875 K, first became non-zero in the early 1970’s around the same time as natural gas usage began and has increased linearly by 0.0175 K/year ever since. Le Chatelier’s principle, applied to the dissipation processes of the biosphere’s ΔH-contours and [CO2] concentrations, helps to explain the global warming statistics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics Applied in Science of Climate Change)
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15 pages, 1199 KiB  
Article
Multi-Sensor Scheduling Method Based on Joint Risk Assessment with Variable Weight
by Lin Zhou, Jiawei Wu, Qian Wei, Wentao Shi and Yong Jin
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091315 - 19 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1413
Abstract
In multi-sensor cooperative detection systems, to reduce target threat risk caused by attack tasks and target loss risk induced by uncertain environmental factors, this paper proposes a multi-sensor scheduling method based on joint risk assessment with variable weight. Firstly, considering the target state [...] Read more.
In multi-sensor cooperative detection systems, to reduce target threat risk caused by attack tasks and target loss risk induced by uncertain environmental factors, this paper proposes a multi-sensor scheduling method based on joint risk assessment with variable weight. Firstly, considering the target state and prior expert experience of sensor scheduling, this paper gives a new scheme of target threat risk. Then, by combining the given target threat risk and the target loss risk, this paper constructs a joint risk model to meet the diversity of risk assessment. Secondly, a variable-weighted joint risk assessment model is given based on the adaptive weight of target loss risk and target threat risk, and the optimization problem of multi-sensor scheduling is described to minimize the multi-step prediction of the variable-weighted joint risk model. Finally, this paper relaxes above the non-convex optimization problem as a subconvex problem and designs the scheme of multi-sensor scheduling, improving the rapidity and optimization of the sensor scheduling solution. The simulation results show that the proposed method can adaptively schedule sensors and accurately track targets by using minimum sensor resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Nonlinear Dynamics: Methods and Applications)
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14 pages, 5568 KiB  
Article
Four Methods to Distinguish between Fractal Dimensions in Time Series through Recurrence Quantification Analysis
by Alon Tomashin, Giuseppe Leonardi and Sebastian Wallot
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1314; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091314 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2016
Abstract
Fractal properties in time series of human behavior and physiology are quite ubiquitous, and several methods to capture such properties have been proposed in the past decades. Fractal properties are marked by similarities in statistical characteristics over time and space, and it has [...] Read more.
Fractal properties in time series of human behavior and physiology are quite ubiquitous, and several methods to capture such properties have been proposed in the past decades. Fractal properties are marked by similarities in statistical characteristics over time and space, and it has been suggested that such properties can be well-captured through recurrence quantification analysis. However, no methods to capture fractal fluctuations by means of recurrence-based methods have been developed yet. The present paper takes this suggestion as a point of departure to propose and test several approaches to quantifying fractal fluctuations in synthetic and empirical time-series data using recurrence-based analysis. We show that such measures can be extracted based on recurrence plots, and contrast the different approaches in terms of their accuracy and range of applicability. Full article
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8 pages, 249 KiB  
Article
A Note on Representational Understanding
by Antal Jakovác and András Telcs
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1313; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091313 - 17 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1004
Abstract
In this paper, we explore a new approach in which understanding is interpreted as a set representation. We prove that understanding/representation, finding the appropriate coordination of data, is equivalent to finding the minimum of the representational entropy. For the control of the search [...] Read more.
In this paper, we explore a new approach in which understanding is interpreted as a set representation. We prove that understanding/representation, finding the appropriate coordination of data, is equivalent to finding the minimum of the representational entropy. For the control of the search for the correct representation, we propose a loss function as a combination of the representational entropy, type one and type two errors. Computational complexity estimates are presented for the process of understanding and using the representation found. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Multidisciplinary Applications)
21 pages, 12792 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of the Thermal and Hydraulic Performance of Supercritical CO2 and Water in Microchannels Based on Entropy Generation
by Yi Tu and Yu Zeng
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1312; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091312 - 16 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1409
Abstract
The excellent thermophysical properties of supercritical CO2 (sCO2) close to the pseudocritical point make it possible to replace water as the coolant of microchannels in application of a high heat flux radiator. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method verified by [...] Read more.
The excellent thermophysical properties of supercritical CO2 (sCO2) close to the pseudocritical point make it possible to replace water as the coolant of microchannels in application of a high heat flux radiator. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method verified by experimental data is used to make a comparison of the thermal hydraulic behavior in CO2-cooled and of water-cooled microchannels. The operation conditions of the CO2-based cooling cases cover the pseudocritical point (with the inlet temperature range of 306~320 K and the working pressure of 8 MPa), and the water-based cooling case has an inlet temperature of 308 K at the working pressure of 0.1 MPa. The channel types include the straight and zigzag microchannels with 90°, 120°, and 150° bending angles, respectively. The analysis result shows that, only when the state of CO2 is close to the pseudocritical point, the sCO2-cooled microchannel is of a higher average heat convection coefficient and a lower average temperature of the heated surface compared to the water-cooled microchannel. The entropy generation rate of the sCO2-cooled microchannel can reach 0.58~0.69 times that of the entropy generation rate for the water-cooled microchannel. Adopting the zigzag structure can enhance the heat transfer, but it does not improve the comprehensive performance represented by the entropy generation rate in the sCO2-cooled microchannel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Heat Exchanger Design and Heat Pump Efficiency)
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18 pages, 2173 KiB  
Article
PV System Failures Diagnosis Based on Multiscale Dispersion Entropy
by Carole Lebreton, Fabrice Kbidi, Alexandre Graillet, Tifenn Jegado, Frédéric Alicalapa, Michel Benne and Cédric Damour
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1311; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091311 - 16 Sep 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1461
Abstract
Photovoltaic (PV) system diagnosis is a growing research domain likewise solar energy’s ongoing significant expansion. Indeed, efficient Fault Detection and Diagnosis (FDD) tools are crucial to guarantee reliability, avoid premature aging and improve the profitability of PV plants. In this paper, an on-line [...] Read more.
Photovoltaic (PV) system diagnosis is a growing research domain likewise solar energy’s ongoing significant expansion. Indeed, efficient Fault Detection and Diagnosis (FDD) tools are crucial to guarantee reliability, avoid premature aging and improve the profitability of PV plants. In this paper, an on-line diagnosis method using the PV plant electrical output is presented. This entirely signal-based method combines variational mode decomposition (VMD) and multiscale dispersion entropy (MDE) for the purpose of detecting and isolating faults in a real grid-connected PV plant. The present method seeks a low-cost design, an ease of implementation and a low computation cost. Taking into account the innovation of applying these techniques to PV FDD, the VMD and MDE procedures as well as parameters identification are carefully detailed. The proposed FFD approach performance is assessed on a real rooftop PV plant with experimentally induced faults, and the first results reveal the MDE approach has good suitability for PV plants diagnosis. Full article
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19 pages, 12076 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Geometric Attractor Structure and Recurrence Analysis in Professional Dancers
by Michalina Błażkiewicz
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091310 - 16 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1553
Abstract
Background: Human motor systems contain nonlinear features. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the geometric structure of attractors and analyze recurrence in two different pirouettes (jazz and classic) performed by 15 professional dancers. Methods: The kinematics of the body’s center of [...] Read more.
Background: Human motor systems contain nonlinear features. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the geometric structure of attractors and analyze recurrence in two different pirouettes (jazz and classic) performed by 15 professional dancers. Methods: The kinematics of the body’s center of mass (CoM) and knee of the supporting leg (LKNE) during the pirouette were measured using the Vicon system. A time series of selected points were resampled, normalized, and randomly reordered. Then, every second time series was flipped to be combined with other time series and make a long time series out of the repetitions of a single task. The attractors were reconstructed, and the convex hull volumes (CHV) were counted for the CoM and LKNE for each pirouette in each direction. Recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) was used to extract additional information. Results: The CHVs calculated for the LKNE were significantly lower for the jazz pirouette. All RQA measures had the highest values for LKNE along the mediolateral axis for the jazz pirouette. This result underscores the high determinism, high motion recurrence, and complexity of this maneuver. Conclusions: The findings offer new insight into the evaluation of the approximation of homogeneity in motion control. A high determinism indicates a highly stable and predictive motion trajectory. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Trends in Nonlinear, Chaotic and Complex Systems)
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14 pages, 3069 KiB  
Article
Work and Thermal Fluctuations in Crystal Indentation under Deterministic and Stochastic Thermostats: The Role of System–Bath Coupling
by Javier Varillas and Lamberto Rondoni
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091309 - 15 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1203
Abstract
The Jarzynski equality (JE) was originally derived under the deterministic Hamiltonian formalism, and later, it was demonstrated that stochastic Langevin dynamics also lead to the JE. However, the JE has been verified mainly in small, low-dimensional systems described by Langevin dynamics. Although the [...] Read more.
The Jarzynski equality (JE) was originally derived under the deterministic Hamiltonian formalism, and later, it was demonstrated that stochastic Langevin dynamics also lead to the JE. However, the JE has been verified mainly in small, low-dimensional systems described by Langevin dynamics. Although the two theoretical derivations apparently lead to the same expression, we illustrate that they describe fundamentally different experimental conditions. While the Hamiltonian framework assumes that the thermal bath producing the initial canonical equilibrium switches off for the duration of the work process, the Langevin bath effectively acts on the system. Moreover, the former considers an environment with which the system may interact, whereas the latter does not. In this study, we investigate the effect of the bath on the measurable quantity of the JE through molecular dynamics simulations of crystal nanoindentation employing deterministic and stochastic thermostats. Our analysis shows that the distributions of the kinetic energy and the mechanical work produced during the indentation processes are affected by the interaction between the system and the thermostat baths. As a result, the type of thermostatting has also a clear effect on the left-hand side of the JE, which enables the estimation of the free-energy difference characterizing the process. Full article
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22 pages, 6314 KiB  
Article
Interdependent Autonomous Human–Machine Systems: The Complementarity of Fitness, Vulnerability and Evolution
by William F. Lawless
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091308 - 15 Sep 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1673
Abstract
For the science of autonomous human–machine systems, traditional causal-time interpretations of reality in known contexts are sufficient for rational decisions and actions to be taken, but not for uncertain or dynamic contexts, nor for building the best teams. First, unlike game theory where [...] Read more.
For the science of autonomous human–machine systems, traditional causal-time interpretations of reality in known contexts are sufficient for rational decisions and actions to be taken, but not for uncertain or dynamic contexts, nor for building the best teams. First, unlike game theory where the contexts are constructed for players, or machine learning where contexts must be stable, when facing uncertainty or conflict, a rational process is insufficient for decisions or actions to be taken; second, as supported by the literature, rational explanations cannot disaggregate human–machine teams. In the first case, interdependent humans facing uncertainty spontaneously engage in debate over complementary tradeoffs in a search for the best path forward, characterized by maximum entropy production (MEP); however, in the second case, signified by a reduction in structural entropy production (SEP), interdependent team structures make it rationally impossible to discern what creates better teams. In our review of evidence for SEP–MEP complementarity for teams, we found that structural redundancy for top global oil producers, replicated for top global militaries, impedes interdependence and promotes corruption. Next, using UN data for Middle Eastern North African nations plus Israel, we found that a nation’s structure of education is significantly associated with MEP by the number of patents it produces; this conflicts with our earlier finding that a U.S. Air Force education in air combat maneuvering was not associated with the best performance in air combat, but air combat flight training was. These last two results exemplify that SEP–MEP interactions by the team’s best members are made by orthogonal contributions. We extend our theory to find that competition between teams hinges on vulnerability, a complementary excess of SEP and reduced MEP, which generalizes to autonomous human–machine systems. Full article
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22 pages, 1067 KiB  
Article
Cross-Correlation- and Entropy-Based Measures of Movement Synchrony: Non-Convergence of Measures Leads to Different Associations with Depressive Symptoms
by Uwe Altmann, Bernhard Strauss and Wolfgang Tschacher
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1307; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091307 - 15 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2018
Abstract
Background: Several algorithms have been proposed to quantify synchronization. However, little is known about their convergent and predictive validity. Methods: The sample included 30 persons who completed a manualized interview focusing on psychosomatic symptoms. The intensity of body motions was measured using motion-energy [...] Read more.
Background: Several algorithms have been proposed to quantify synchronization. However, little is known about their convergent and predictive validity. Methods: The sample included 30 persons who completed a manualized interview focusing on psychosomatic symptoms. The intensity of body motions was measured using motion-energy analysis. We computed several measures of movement synchrony based on the time series of the interviewer and participant: mutual information, windowed cross-recurrence analysis, cross-correlation, rMEA, SUSY, SUCO, WCLC–PP and WCLR–PP. Depressive symptoms were assessed with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ9). Results: According to the explorative factor analyses, all the variants of cross-correlation and all the measures of SUSY, SUCO and rMEA–WCC led to similar synchrony measures and could be assigned to the same factor. All the mutual-information measures, rMEA–WCLC, WCLC–PP–F, WCLC–PP–R2, WCLR–PP–F, and WinCRQA–DET loaded on the second factor. Depressive symptoms correlated negatively with WCLC–PP–F and WCLR–PP–F and positively with rMEA–WCC, SUCO–ES–CO, and MI–Z. Conclusion: More standardization efforts are needed because different synchrony measures have little convergent validity, which can lead to contradictory conclusions concerning associations between depressive symptoms and movement synchrony using the same dataset. Full article
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157 pages, 7548 KiB  
Article
Fidelity Mechanics: Analogues of the Four Thermodynamic Laws and Landauer’s Principle
by Huan-Qiang Zhou, Qian-Qian Shi and Yan-Wei Dai
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1306; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091306 - 15 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1498
Abstract
Fidelity mechanics is formalized as a framework for investigating critical phenomena in quantum many-body systems. Fidelity temperature is introduced for quantifying quantum fluctuations, which, together with fidelity entropy and fidelity internal energy, constitute three basic state functions in fidelity mechanics, thus enabling us [...] Read more.
Fidelity mechanics is formalized as a framework for investigating critical phenomena in quantum many-body systems. Fidelity temperature is introduced for quantifying quantum fluctuations, which, together with fidelity entropy and fidelity internal energy, constitute three basic state functions in fidelity mechanics, thus enabling us to formulate analogues of the four thermodynamic laws and Landauer’s principle at zero temperature. Fidelity flows, which are irreversible, are defined and may be interpreted as an alternative form of renormalization group flows. Thus, fidelity mechanics offers a means to characterize both stable and unstable fixed points: divergent fidelity temperature for unstable fixed points and zero-fidelity temperature and (locally) maximal fidelity entropy for stable fixed points. In addition, fidelity entropy behaves differently at an unstable fixed point for topological phase transitions and at a stable fixed point for topological quantum states of matter. A detailed analysis of fidelity mechanical-state functions is presented for six fundamental models—the quantum spin-1/2 XY model, the transverse-field quantum Ising model in a longitudinal field, the quantum spin-1/2 XYZ model, the quantum spin-1/2 XXZ model in a magnetic field, the quantum spin-1 XYZ model, and the spin-1/2 Kitaev model on a honeycomb lattice for illustrative purposes. We also present an argument to justify why the thermodynamic, psychological/computational, and cosmological arrows of time should align with each other, with the psychological/computational arrow of time being singled out as a master arrow of time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Information and the Physical Foundations of Computation)
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21 pages, 2541 KiB  
Article
Research on China’s Risk of Housing Price Contagion Based on Multilayer Networks
by Lu Qiu, Rongpei Su and Zhouwei Wang
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091305 - 15 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1139
Abstract
The major issue in the evolution of housing prices is risk of housing price contagion. To model this issue, we constructed housing multilayer networks using transfer entropy, generalized variance decomposition, directed minimum spanning trees, and directed planar maximally filtered graph methods, as well [...] Read more.
The major issue in the evolution of housing prices is risk of housing price contagion. To model this issue, we constructed housing multilayer networks using transfer entropy, generalized variance decomposition, directed minimum spanning trees, and directed planar maximally filtered graph methods, as well as China’s comprehensive indices of housing price and urban real housing prices from 2012 to 2021. The results of our housing multilayer networks show that the topological indices (degree, PageRank, eigenvector, etc.) of new first-tier cities (Tianjin, Qingdao, and Shenyang) rank higher than those of conventional first-tier cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzheng). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Complex Network Analysis in Econometrics)
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19 pages, 3596 KiB  
Article
Highly Accurate Visual Method of Mars Terrain Classification for Rovers Based on Novel Image Features
by Fengtian Lv, Nan Li, Chuankai Liu, Haibo Gao, Liang Ding, Zongquan Deng and Guangjun Liu
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1304; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091304 - 15 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1805
Abstract
It is important for Mars exploration rovers to achieve autonomous and safe mobility over rough terrain. Terrain classification can help rovers to select a safe terrain to traverse and avoid sinking and/or damaging the vehicle. Mars terrains are often classified using visual methods. [...] Read more.
It is important for Mars exploration rovers to achieve autonomous and safe mobility over rough terrain. Terrain classification can help rovers to select a safe terrain to traverse and avoid sinking and/or damaging the vehicle. Mars terrains are often classified using visual methods. However, the accuracy of terrain classification has been less than 90% in read operations. A high-accuracy vision-based method for Mars terrain classification is presented in this paper. By analyzing Mars terrain characteristics, novel image features, including multiscale gray gradient-grade features, multiscale edges strength-grade features, multiscale frequency-domain mean amplitude features, multiscale spectrum symmetry features, and multiscale spectrum amplitude-moment features, are proposed that are specifically targeted for terrain classification. Three classifiers, K-nearest neighbor (KNN), support vector machine (SVM), and random forests (RF), are adopted to classify the terrain using the proposed features. The Mars image dataset MSLNet that was collected by the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL, Curiosity) rover is used to conduct terrain classification experiments. The resolution of Mars images in the dataset is 256 × 256. Experimental results indicate that the RF classifies Mars terrain at the highest level of accuracy of 94.66%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Entropy in Image Analysis)
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14 pages, 1262 KiB  
Article
An Asymmetric Contrastive Loss for Handling Imbalanced Datasets
by Valentino Vito and Lim Yohanes Stefanus
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1303; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091303 - 15 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1870
Abstract
Contrastive learning is a representation learning method performed by contrasting a sample to other similar samples so that they are brought closely together, forming clusters in the feature space. The learning process is typically conducted using a two-stage training architecture, and it utilizes [...] Read more.
Contrastive learning is a representation learning method performed by contrasting a sample to other similar samples so that they are brought closely together, forming clusters in the feature space. The learning process is typically conducted using a two-stage training architecture, and it utilizes the contrastive loss (CL) for its feature learning. Contrastive learning has been shown to be quite successful in handling imbalanced datasets, in which some classes are overrepresented while some others are underrepresented. However, previous studies have not specifically modified CL for imbalanced datasets. In this work, we introduce an asymmetric version of CL, referred to as ACL, in order to directly address the problem of class imbalance. In addition, we propose the asymmetric focal contrastive loss (AFCL) as a further generalization of both ACL and focal contrastive loss (FCL). The results on the imbalanced FMNIST and ISIC 2018 datasets show that the AFCL is capable of outperforming the CL and FCL in terms of both weighted and unweighted classification accuracies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Machine and Deep Learning)
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11 pages, 2668 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study on a Multi-Evaporator Refrigeration System Equipped with EEV-Based Ejector
by Jia Yan and Chen Wang
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1302; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091302 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2507
Abstract
This study presents an experimental rig of a multi-evaporator refrigeration system, in which the pressure difference between two evaporators can be maintained by using both the pressure-regulating valve (PRV) and electronic expansion valve (EEV)-based ejector. The proposed EEV-based ejector that is used to [...] Read more.
This study presents an experimental rig of a multi-evaporator refrigeration system, in which the pressure difference between two evaporators can be maintained by using both the pressure-regulating valve (PRV) and electronic expansion valve (EEV)-based ejector. The proposed EEV-based ejector that is used to partially recover the throttling losses of the PRV consists of an EEV and the main body of an ejector. The established experimental system can work in both PRV-based mode and ejector-based mode by switching the valves. Via experimental means, the performances of both modes were evaluated by varying the cooling loads. Moreover, the effects of the spindle-blocking area percentage of the EEV-based ejector and the condensing temperature on the system performance were identified. The results showed that: (1) the system performance of the ejector-based mode was 3.6% higher than the PRV-based mode; (2) both entrainment ratio and coefficient of performance dropped along with the increase in ejector spindle-blocking area percentage; (3) compared to ejector spindle-blocking area percentage, the condensing temperature had a more evident influence on the system performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Entropy and Exergy Analysis in Ejector-Based Systems)
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15 pages, 2662 KiB  
Article
AP Shadow Net: A Remote Sensing Shadow Removal Network Based on Atmospheric Transport and Poisson’s Equation
by Fan Li, Zhiyi Wang and Guoliang He
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1301; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091301 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1582
Abstract
Shadow is one of the fundamental indicators of remote sensing image which could cause loss or interference of the target data. As a result, the detection and removal of shadow has already been the hotspot of current study because of the complicated background [...] Read more.
Shadow is one of the fundamental indicators of remote sensing image which could cause loss or interference of the target data. As a result, the detection and removal of shadow has already been the hotspot of current study because of the complicated background information. In the following passage, a model combining the Atmospheric Transport Model (hereinafter abbreviated as ATM) with the Poisson Equation, AP ShadowNet, is proposed for the shadow detection and removal of remote sensing images by unsupervised learning. This network based on a preprocessing network based on ATM, A Net, and a network based on the Poisson Equation, P Net. Firstly, corresponding mapping between shadow and unshaded area is generated by the ATM. The brightened image will then enter the Confrontation identification in the P Net. Lastly, the reconstructed image is optimized on color consistency and edge transition by Poisson Equation. At present, most shadow removal models based on neural networks are significantly data-driven. Fortunately, by the model in this passage, the unsupervised shadow detection and removal could be released from the data source restrictions from the remote sensing images themselves. By verifying the shadow removal on our model, the result shows a satisfying effect from a both qualitative and quantitative angle. From a qualitative point of view, our results have a prominent effect on tone consistency and removal of detailed shadows. From the quantitative point of view, we adopt the non-reference evaluation indicators: gradient structure similarity (NRSS) and Natural Image Quality Evaluator (NIQE). Combining various evaluation factors such as reasoning speed and memory occupation, it shows that it is outstanding among other current algorithms. Full article
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12 pages, 2414 KiB  
Article
Opinion Dynamics with Higher-Order Bounded Confidence
by Chaoqian Wang
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1300; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091300 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1529
Abstract
The higher-order interactions in complex systems are gaining attention. Extending the classic bounded confidence model where an agent’s opinion update is the average opinion of its peers, this paper proposes a higher-order version of the bounded confidence model. Each agent organizes a group [...] Read more.
The higher-order interactions in complex systems are gaining attention. Extending the classic bounded confidence model where an agent’s opinion update is the average opinion of its peers, this paper proposes a higher-order version of the bounded confidence model. Each agent organizes a group opinion discussion among its peers. Then, the discussion’s result influences all participants’ opinions. Since an agent is also the peer of its peers, the agent actually participates in multiple group discussions. We assume the agent’s opinion update is the average over multiple group discussions. The opinion dynamics rules can be arbitrary in each discussion. In this work, we experiment with two discussion rules: centralized and decentralized. We show that the centralized rule is equivalent to the classic bounded confidence model. The decentralized rule, however, can promote opinion consensus. In need of modeling specific real-life scenarios, the higher-order bounded confidence is more convenient to combine with other higher-order interactions, from the contagion process to evolutionary dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Statistical Physics of Opinion Formation and Social Phenomena)
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18 pages, 850 KiB  
Article
Utility–Privacy Trade-Off in Distributed Machine Learning Systems
by Xia Zeng, Chuanchuan Yang and Bin Dai
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1299; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091299 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1315
Abstract
In distributed machine learning (DML), though clients’ data are not directly transmitted to the server for model training, attackers can obtain the sensitive information of clients by analyzing the local gradient parameters uploaded by clients. For this case, we use the differential privacy [...] Read more.
In distributed machine learning (DML), though clients’ data are not directly transmitted to the server for model training, attackers can obtain the sensitive information of clients by analyzing the local gradient parameters uploaded by clients. For this case, we use the differential privacy (DP) mechanism to protect the clients’ local parameters. In this paper, from an information-theoretic point of view, we study the utility–privacy trade-off in DML with the help of the DP mechanism. Specifically, three cases including independent clients’ local parameters with independent DP noise, dependent clients’ local parameters with independent/dependent DP noise are considered. Mutual information and conditional mutual information are used to characterize utility and privacy, respectively. First, we show the relationship between utility and privacy for the three cases. Then, we show the optimal noise variance that achieves the maximal utility under a certain level of privacy. Finally, the results of this paper are further illustrated by numerical results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Entropy in Soft Computing and Machine Learning Algorithms II)
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12 pages, 484 KiB  
Article
A New Method for Determining the Embedding Dimension of Financial Time Series Based on Manhattan Distance and Recurrence Quantification Analysis
by Hanhuai Zhu and Jingjing Huang
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1298; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091298 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1385
Abstract
Identification of embedding dimension is helpful to the reconstruction of phase space. However, it is difficult to calculate the proper embedding dimension for the financial time series of dynamics. By this Letter, we suggest a new method based on Manhattan distance and recurrence [...] Read more.
Identification of embedding dimension is helpful to the reconstruction of phase space. However, it is difficult to calculate the proper embedding dimension for the financial time series of dynamics. By this Letter, we suggest a new method based on Manhattan distance and recurrence quantification analysis for determining the embedding dimension. By the advantages of the above two tools, the new method can calculate the proper embedding dimension with the feature of stability, accuracy and rigor. Besides, it also has a good performance on the chaotic time series which has a high-dimensional attractors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Statistical Physics in Finance and Economics)
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18 pages, 331 KiB  
Article
Detecting Tripartite Steering via Quantum Entanglement
by Zhihua Chen and Shao-Ming Fei
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091297 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1215
Abstract
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen steering is a kind of powerful nonlocal quantum resource in quantum information processing such as quantum cryptography and quantum communication. Many criteria have been proposed in the past few years to detect steerability, both analytically and numerically, for bipartite quantum systems. We [...] Read more.
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen steering is a kind of powerful nonlocal quantum resource in quantum information processing such as quantum cryptography and quantum communication. Many criteria have been proposed in the past few years to detect steerability, both analytically and numerically, for bipartite quantum systems. We propose effective criteria for tripartite steerability and genuine tripartite steerability of three-qubit quantum states by establishing connections between the tripartite steerability (resp. genuine tripartite steerability) and the tripartite entanglement (resp. genuine tripartite entanglement) of certain corresponding quantum states. From these connections, tripartite steerability and genuine tripartite steerability can be detected without using any steering inequalities. The “complex cost” of determining tripartite steering and genuine tripartite steering can be reduced by detecting the entanglement of the newly constructed states in the experiment. Detailed examples are given to illustrate the power of our criteria in detecting the (genuine) tripartite steerability of tripartite states. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Correlations Used in Quantum Technologies)
15 pages, 822 KiB  
Article
Consensus-Related Performance of Triplex MASs Based on Partial Complete Graph Structure
by Jicheng Bian, Da Huang, Jiabo Xu and Zhiyong Yu
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1296; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091296 - 14 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1152
Abstract
This article mainly studies first-order coherence related to the robustness of the triplex MASs consensus models with partial complete graph structures; the performance index is studied through algebraic graph theory. The topologies of the novel triplex networks are generated by graph operations and [...] Read more.
This article mainly studies first-order coherence related to the robustness of the triplex MASs consensus models with partial complete graph structures; the performance index is studied through algebraic graph theory. The topologies of the novel triplex networks are generated by graph operations and the approach of graph spectra is applied to calculate the first-order network coherence. The coherence asymptotic behaviours of the three cases of the partial complete structures are analysed and compared. We find that under the condition that the number of nodes in partial complete substructures n tends to infinity, the coherence asymptotic behaviour of the two sorts of non-isomorphic three-layered networks will be increased by r12(r+1), which is irrelevant to the peripheral vertices number p; when p tends to infinity, adding star copies to the original triplex topologies will reverse the original size relationship of the coherence under consideration of the triplex networks. Finally, the coherence of the three-layered networks with the same sorts of parameters, but non-isomorphic graphs, are simulated to verify the results. Full article
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17 pages, 3710 KiB  
Article
A Novel Bearing Fault Diagnosis Method Based on Few-Shot Transfer Learning across Different Datasets
by Yizong Zhang, Shaobo Li, Ansi Zhang, Chuanjiang Li and Ling Qiu
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1295; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091295 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1870
Abstract
At present, the success of most intelligent fault diagnosis methods is heavily dependent on large datasets of artificial simulation faults (ASF), which have not been widely used in practice because it is often costly to obtain a large number of samples in reality. [...] Read more.
At present, the success of most intelligent fault diagnosis methods is heavily dependent on large datasets of artificial simulation faults (ASF), which have not been widely used in practice because it is often costly to obtain a large number of samples in reality. Fortunately, various faults can be easily simulated in the laboratory, and these simulated faults contain a lot of fault diagnosis knowledge. In this study, based on a Siamese network framework, we propose a bearing fault diagnosis based on few-shot transfer learning across different datasets (cross-machine), using the knowledge of ASF to diagnose bearings with natural faults (NF). First of all, the model obtains a good feature encoder in the source domain, then defines a fault support set for comparison, and finally adjusts the support set with a very small number of target domain samples to improve the fault diagnosis performance of the model. We carried out experimental verification from many aspects on the ASF and NF datasets provided by Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) and Paderborn University (PU). The results show that the proposed method can fully learn diagnostic knowledge in different ASF datasets and sample numbers, and effectively use this knowledge to accurately identify the health state of the NF bearing, which has strong generalization and robustness. Our method does not need second training, which may be more convenient in some practical applications. Finally, we also discuss the possible limitations of this method. Full article
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15 pages, 3509 KiB  
Article
A Multigraph-Defined Distribution Function in a Simulation Model of a Communication Network
by Slobodan Miletic, Ivan Pokrajac, Karelia Pena-Pena, Gonzalo R. Arce and Vladimir Mladenovic
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091294 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1035
Abstract
We presented a method based on multigraphs to mathematically define a distribution function in time for the generation of data exchange in a special-purpose communication network. This is needed for the modeling and design of communication networks (CNs) consisting of integrated telecommunications and [...] Read more.
We presented a method based on multigraphs to mathematically define a distribution function in time for the generation of data exchange in a special-purpose communication network. This is needed for the modeling and design of communication networks (CNs) consisting of integrated telecommunications and computer networks (ITCN). Simulation models require a precise definition of network traffic communication. An additional problem for describing the network traffic in simulation models is the mathematical model of data distribution, according to which the generation and exchange of certain types and quantities of data are realized. The application of multigraphs enabled the time and quantity of the data distribution to be displayed as operational procedures for a special-purpose communication unit. A multigraph was formed for each data-exchange time and allowed its associated adjacency matrix to be defined. Using the matrix estimation method allowed the mathematical definition of the distribution function values. The application of the described method for the use of multigraphs enabled a more accurate mathematical description of real traffic in communication networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symbolic Entropy Analysis and Its Applications III)
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28 pages, 1850 KiB  
Article
Entropy–Based Diversification Approach for Bio–Computing Methods
by Rodrigo Olivares, Ricardo Soto, Broderick Crawford, Fabián Riquelme, Roberto Munoz, Víctor Ríos, Rodrigo Cabrera and Carlos Castro
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091293 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1419
Abstract
Nature–inspired computing is a promising field of artificial intelligence. This area is mainly devoted to designing computational models based on natural phenomena to address complex problems. Nature provides a rich source of inspiration for designing smart procedures capable of becoming powerful algorithms. Many [...] Read more.
Nature–inspired computing is a promising field of artificial intelligence. This area is mainly devoted to designing computational models based on natural phenomena to address complex problems. Nature provides a rich source of inspiration for designing smart procedures capable of becoming powerful algorithms. Many of these procedures have been successfully developed to treat optimization problems, with impressive results. Nonetheless, for these algorithms to reach their maximum performance, a proper balance between the intensification and the diversification phases is required. The intensification generates a local solution around the best solution by exploiting a promising region. Diversification is responsible for finding new solutions when the main procedure is trapped in a local region. This procedure is usually carryout by non-deterministic fundamentals that do not necessarily provide the expected results. Here, we encounter the stagnation problem, which describes a scenario where the search for the optimum solution stalls before discovering a globally optimal solution. In this work, we propose an efficient technique for detecting and leaving local optimum regions based on Shannon entropy. This component can measure the uncertainty level of the observations taken from random variables. We employ this principle on three well–known population–based bio–inspired optimization algorithms: particle swarm optimization, bat optimization, and black hole algorithm. The proposal’s performance is evidenced by solving twenty of the most challenging instances of the multidimensional knapsack problem. Computational results show that the proposed exploration approach is a legitimate alternative to manage the diversification of solutions since the improved techniques can generate a better distribution of the optimal values found. The best results are with the bat method, where in all instances, the enhanced solver with the Shannon exploration strategy works better than its native version. For the other two bio-inspired algorithms, the proposal operates significantly better in over 70% of instances. Full article
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18 pages, 634 KiB  
Article
Spin Entropy
by Davi Geiger and Zvi M. Kedem
Entropy 2022, 24(9), 1292; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091292 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2222
Abstract
Two types of randomness are associated with a mixed quantum state: the uncertainty in the probability coefficients of the constituent pure states and the uncertainty in the value of each observable captured by the Born’s rule probabilities. Entropy is a quantification of randomness, [...] Read more.
Two types of randomness are associated with a mixed quantum state: the uncertainty in the probability coefficients of the constituent pure states and the uncertainty in the value of each observable captured by the Born’s rule probabilities. Entropy is a quantification of randomness, and we propose a spin-entropy for the observables of spin pure states based on the phase space of a spin as described by the geometric quantization method, and we also expand it to mixed quantum states. This proposed entropy overcomes the limitations of previously-proposed entropies such as von Neumann entropy which only quantifies the randomness of specifying the quantum state. As an example of a limitation, previously-proposed entropies are higher for Bell entangled spin states than for disentangled spin states, even though the spin observables are less constrained for a disentangled pair of spins than for an entangled pair. The proposed spin-entropy accurately quantifies the randomness of a quantum state, it never reaches zero value, and it is lower for entangled states than for disentangled states. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nature of Entropy and Its Direct Metrology)
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